Unpacking the role of school climate factors in fostering teacher enjoyment and self-efficacy in higher education

PLOS One | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0329001 August 13, 2025 3 / 17 previous desired event or result [8]. In the context of teachers, teachers’ self-efficacy and engagement emerge as sig- nificant predictors of their positive emotions, including enjoyment [14,26,38–40], though comparative evidence suggests student engagement exerts stronger influences on teachers’ emotions than self-efficacy [27]. Furthermore, Frenzel et al. identified a reciprocal relationship between teachers’ and students’ enjoyment [11], where students’ initial learning enjoy- ment enhances teachers’ perceived classroom engagement, thereby reinforcing teachers’ positive affect [8,41]. Diary studies demonstrated that students’ motivation and discipline significantly predict teachers’ enjoyment [15]. In addition, Taxer et al. found that positive teacher-student relationships protect against emotional exhaustion in teachers by sustain- ing the level of enjoyment they feel in the classroom [42]. Outside classroom, research has shown that teachers with a positive view of their work environment experience greater enjoyment in teaching [17]. Similarly, Sutton emphasized the relevance of teachers’ positive emotions to their everyday work [43]. Teacher self-efficacy Teacher self-efficacy, as described in Bandura’s social cognitive theory [44], refers to a teacher’s belief in their capability to successfully foster student engagement and facilitate learning, even with challenging or unmotivated students [39]. This

complex construct encompasses teachers’ evaluations of their own chances of succeeding in managing the classroom, engaging students, and implementing teaching strategies [39,45,46]. Recent studies have empirically linked various factors to teacher self-efficacy. Research has shown that school-related factors significantly impact teachers’ self-efficacy [47–49], including school resources and support, teacher perceived collegial leadership, and a positive atmosphere among school staff (i.e., teacher affiliation), all of which are key drivers [50–53]. Conversely, occupational stressors such as burnout and job-related stress have been shown to decrease teach- ers’ efficacy beliefs [6,51,54–56]. In turn, teacher self-efficacy positively impacts several important teacher outcomes, including work engagement [57–61], job satisfaction [62–66], teaching effectiveness [67–69], well-being [39,69], and pos- itive emotions such as joy and pride [70,71]. Notably, Tschannen-Moran and Hoy highlighted the significance of teacher self-efficacy in promoting their positive emotions [39]. In line with this, later investigations done by Kunter et al. and Xiao et al. further confirmed the strong relationship between teacher self-efficacy and enjoyment [40,72]. School climate The empirical research on school climate began in the 1950s [73], but there is no universal agreement among research- ers on its definition [74]. Concentrating on the teachers’ perceptions regarding school climate, this paper adopts a teacher-

oriented definition, where school climate is defined as “the psychosocial context in which teachers work and teach” [75]. Scholars and practitioners have recognized various components of school climate and have developed scales to measure it (e.g., Questionnaire on Teacher Interaction (QTI), School-level Environment Questionnaire (SLEQ), and Classroom Environment Questionnaire (ICEQ)) [74]. Extensive evidence demonstrates school climate’s multifaceted influence on educational stakeholders. For students, a supportive school climate is associated with enhanced well-being, increased engagement, improved academic achieve- ment, decreased aggression, fewer suspensions, and other positive outcomes [73,74,76,77]. For teachers, studies have found that a positive school climate is associated with lower stress, increased efficacy, job satisfaction, and teacher reten- tion [4,19,78–81]. In addition, it is widely recognized that a supportive school climate significantly shapes teachers’ per- ceptions, which in turn can improve student learning outcomes [82]. In examining the relationship between school climate factors and teachers’ self-efficacy, Aldridge and Fraser identified three key school climate factors-adequate resources, approachable and supportive principals, and affiliation-that enhance teacher self-efficacy by fostering a stronger per- ception of institutional goal alignment [19]. Additionally, other studies have further emphasized the positive relationship

between teacher self-efficacy and various school climate elements, such as instructional innovation, a supportive working environment, collegial leadership, teachers’ perceptions of professionalism, affiliation, and staff autonomy [4,20,48,83,84].