Diversity in Education Study (DivES): Investigating a neurodiversity module in higher education

PLOS One | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0327379 July 21, 2025 10 / 12 Some of the bias embedded in research can be mitigated with the use of participatory research – consulting and collab- orating with individuals within communities of interest [36–38]. We acknowledge the importance of incorporating individu- als within communities of interest; however, the current study did not explicitly use participatory research methods and/or gather input from neurodivergent individuals at each stage in the research process. This may limit study external validity to neurodivergent populations. Future studies can aim to mitigate this limitation by utilizing participatory research methods and/or by actively seeking feedback from neurodivergent individuals. This study primarily focuses on more commonly assessed neurodivergent identities – limiting its external validity to the wider neurodivergent populous. Future work can improve on this by explicitly incorporating more underrepresented neuro- divergent identities. Construct validity The index of neurodiversity knowledge was limited to one item – although it had face validity – it did not capture the range of growth or the accuracy of student reports. Students were less likely to report ‘I don’t know’ what neurodiversity means in the post survey, but this did not capture if their perceptions were accurate or the depth of this gained knowledge. Internal validity The design of this study did not randomize students into classes with and without the neurodiversity module which would

allow for more causal conclusions. Changes in student knowledge, self-endorsements, and critical consciousness of ableism cannot be causally linked to the neurodiversity module. Statistical conclusion validity The limited variability in this sample, with respect to race, sexual orientation, and gender required us to dichotomize these identity variables. Although this dichotomization preserved power in the analyses it limited our ability to detect meaningful differences based on these population factors. The null results with respect to neurodivergent identity self-reports across race, sexual orientation, and gender may reflect our sample’s limited variability. Future directions The present study contributes to the growing body of literature on neurodiversity in HE by demonstrating potential bene- fits of incorporating neurodiversity-focused modules in undergraduate courses. While the module successfully increased awareness and self-disclosure of neurodivergent identities, the unexpected decrease in critical consciousness of ableism underscores the need for a more nuanced and critical approach to teaching about neurodiversity. By addressing these gaps, HE institutions can better support neurodivergent students and foster more inclusive academic environments. Acknowledgments We would like to thank Monica Barany, Melanie Clayton, and the students of the Sleep and Developmental Studies Labo- ratory at Purdue University for their data cleaning and manuscript preparation support. We are also grateful to Amy Chil-

dress and Craig Zywicki from Purdue’s Office of Undergraduate Research who supported the development of this CURE (course-based undergraduate research experience) and continue to support our data collection. This acknowledgment would not be complete without a sincere thank you to the students of Human Development and Family Science (HDFS) 280: Diversity in the Individual and the Family – who made this study possible. Author contributions Conceptualization: A.J. Schwichtenberg, Katherine Mirah, Amy Janis, Moon Wests, Annabelle L. Atkin.