Constraints, mechanisms, and strategies for industry-education integration in vocational education: An empirical study

PLOS One | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0339158 December 18, 2025 6 / 18 Table 1. Definitions and sources of potential constraining factors. No. Potential constraining factors Definitions Sources 1 The completeness of policies The degree of perfection in policies, regulations, standards, and norms related to IEI. [34,42,43] 2 The willingness of enterprises to cooperate Enterprises’ willingness to engage in IEI with higher education institutions. [13,34] 3 The alignment of talent cultivation quality The degree of alignment between the quality of talent cultivation in higher educa- tion institutions and enterprise employment requirements. [42,44] 4 The level of attention given by universities The degree of emphasis higher education institutions place on implementing IEI. [32] 5 The degree of teacher involvement The willingness and enthusiasm of faculty members to participate in IEI. [34] 6 The extent of student engagement The willingness and enthusiasm of students to participate in IEI. [27,30] 7 The adequacy of hardware and software facilities The degree of perfection in software/hardware facilities (e.g., faculty, training venues, equipment) during IEI. [7,14] 8 The differences in talent cultivation philosophies The degree of difference between higher education institutions and enterprises regarding vocational education talent cultivation concepts. [45] 9 The achievement of school-enterprise mutual interests The degree to which the interests and expectations of higher education institu- tions and enterprises are achieved through IEI. [13,34,46]

10 The clarity of school-enterprise responsi- bilities and rights The degree of clarity in the rights, responsibilities, and obligations of higher edu- cation institutions and enterprises in IEI. [12,13,24] 11 The effectiveness of school-enterprise communication The degree of effectiveness in communication and interaction between higher education institutions and enterprises during IEI. [42,47,48] 12 The closeness of prior university- enterprise collaboration The degree of closeness in collaboration between higher education institutions and enterprises prior to implementing IEI. [49] 13 The fluidity of school-enterprise cooperation channels The degree of smoothness in collaboration channels between higher education institutions and enterprises. [49,50] https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0339158.t001 Table 2. Measurement items for potential constraining factors. No. Potential constraining factors Measurement items 1 The completeness of policies I believe that the inadequacy of policies related to IEI will constrain its development. 2 The willingness of enterprises to cooperate I believe that the lack of strong willingness from enterprises to engage in IEI will constrain its development. 3 The alignment of talent cultivation quality I believe that the failure of talent cultivation quality to meet the employment requirements of enterprises will constrain the development of IEI. 4 The level of attention given by universities I believe that the insufficient attention given by universities to IEI will constrain its development.

5 The degree of teacher involvement I believe that the low level of teacher participation in IEI will constrain its development. 6 The extent of student engagement I believe that the low level of student participation in IEI will constrain its development. 7 The adequacy of hardware and software facilities I believe that the lack of hardware and software facilities, such as faculty, training sites, and equipment, will constrain the development of IEI. 8 The differences in talent cultivation philosophies I believe that the differences in talent cultivation philosophies between universities and enterprises will constrain the development of IEI. 9 The achievement of school- enterprise mutual interests I believe that the failure to meet mutual expectations regarding interests between universities and enterprises will constrain the development of IEI. 10 The clarity of school-enterprise responsibilities and rights I believe that the lack of clarity regarding the responsibilities and rights of universities and enterprises will constrain the development of IEI. 11 The effectiveness of school- enterprise communication I believe that the lack of effective communication between universities and enterprises will constrain the development of IEI. 12 The closeness of prior university- enterprise collaboration I believe that the weak foundation of early-stage cooperation between universities and enterprises will constrain the development of IEI. 13 The fluidity of school-enterprise cooperation channels

I believe that the insufficient smoothness of cooperation channels between universities and enterprises will constrain the development of IEI. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0339158.t002