Constraints, mechanisms, and strategies for industry-education integration in vocational education: An empirical study

PLOS One | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0339158 December 18, 2025 4 / 18 of corresponding solutions and measures. Second, although some scholars have conducted research on the challenges in the development of IEI in vocational education, these studies mainly propose countermeasures from a macro perspec- tive based on specific cases. Due to the lack of in-depth analysis of the underlying causes restricting the development of IEI, the proposed countermeasures may deviate from actual situations, potentially leading to counterproductive outcomes. Therefore, it is necessary to explore the factors and mechanisms restricting the development of IEI in vocational educa- tion in greater depth, in order to propose targeted countermeasures that will help overcome the current challenges in the development of IEI. To address this identified research gap, this study selects Shenzhen, China as an empirical case to explore the con- straining factors and underlying mechanisms hindering the integration of vocational education and industry, while proposing effective countermeasures. Shenzhen serves as an exemplary research context due to its dual identity as both a global manufacturing hub and a national pilot city for educational reform. As a national pilot, Shenzhen has formulated a multi- tiered policy framework for vocational education IEI, anchored by documents such as Shenzhen Three-Year Action Plan for High-Quality Development of Technical and Vocational Education (2023–2025), the draft Shenzhen Special Economic Zone

Vocational Education Regulations, Shenzhen Work Plan for Improving the Lifelong Vocational Skills Training System, and Shenzhen Measures for Vocational Skills Training Subsidies. Specifically, the Three-Year Action Plan explicitly mandates the construction of 10 industry colleges with benchmark enterprises and 20 model industry-education integration training bases by 2025, while stipulating that enterprises participating in collaboration are eligible for fiscal, financial, and tax incentives. The draft Vocational Education Regulations further clarifies the legal obligations and incentive mechanisms for enterprise partic- ipation in IEI, and the Training Subsidies Measures provides tangible financial support for enterprises engaged in vocational skills training, forming a policy system covering institutional guarantees, resource input, and benefit incentives. In addition, Shenzhen hosts a concentration of high-tech industries (e.g., Huawei, Tencent) and vocational institutions, presenting a microcosm of both tensions and synergies in workforce supply-demand dynamics. The city’s rapid industrial upgrading and explicit policy mandates necessitate close industry-education collaboration [35]. However, persistent challenges, including curriculum misalignment with Industry 4.0 skill requirements and uneven enterprise participation – mirror systemic issues commonly faced by emerging economies. Consequently, using Shenzhen as an empirical case offers transferable insights for other similar emerging economies that aim to enhance vocational education-industry integration.

To achieve the research objectives, this study first employed a literature review and questionnaire surveys to identify the constraining factors affecting the development of IEI in vocational education. Then, by using expert interviews and Interpretative Structural Modelling (ISM), the study elucidated the mechanisms that restrict the development of IEI and reveals specific pathways of constraint. Finally, response strategies to promote the integrated development of industry- education collaboration in vocational education were proposed from three key stakeholders: the government, vocational institutions, and enterprises. 2. Research process and methods Since existing research has not yet systematically explored the constraining factors and mechanisms of IEI, this study draws upon research methodologies concerning influencing factors and mechanisms from other related fields to fill this gap [36–38]. Through synthesis, their research processes can be categorized into three distinct phases: (1) identifying the potential constraining factors, (2) determining the critical constraining factors, and (3) analyzing the constraining mecha- nisms. Consequently, this study adopts the same three-phase research framework, wherein the research methods used at each stage, along with the corresponding outcomes, are illustrated in Fig 1. 2.1. Identifying the potential constraining factors The literature review is widely acknowledged as an effective method for identifying potential factors and has been extensively

utilized in contemporary research [37,39–41]. This study also employs a literature review to identify the potential factors that