Constraints, mechanisms, and strategies for industry-education integration in vocational education: An empirical study

PLOS One | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0339158 December 18, 2025 3 / 18 influencing factors. Regarding integration models, extant research has examined Germany’s “dual system,” America’s “cooperative education,” and Australia’s “training package” approaches [15–18]. Some scholars have attempted to trans- plant these models to other contexts [19,20]. For instance, Hong investigated the applicability of Germany’s dual system in China, finding direct adoption problematic without contextual adaptation and innovation [21]. Consequently, researchers have proposed context-specific integration models accounting for regional and industrial particularities. Notable examples include Li et al.’s framework for China’s water conservancy sector, featuring physical hybrid, biological grafting, chemical compounding, and ecological symbiosis models, demonstrating the necessity of localized model development [22]. Regarding evaluation systems, existing research indicates that developed countries generally emphasize the assess- ment of IEI, albeit with varying evaluation approaches and requirements across nations [7]. Germany employs a dual eval- uation mechanism where vocational colleges develop quality rating scales combining internal and external assessments [23]. The United States prioritizes effective articulation between vocational education and industrial sectors, mandating state-level development of evaluation plans and performance indicators [24]. In Japan, quality evaluation constitutes a

statutory obligation for vocational institutions, implemented through combined self-evaluation and external review pro- cesses [25]. Furthermore, scholars have developed diverse evaluation frameworks using distinct methodologies: Chen et al. established an urban IEI index system by applying modified fuzzy linguistic approaches based on the Context- Input-Process-Product model [26]; Gong constructed a performance evaluation model grounded in coupling coordination theory, incorporating the Structure-Conduct-Performance paradigm from industrial organization theory [8]; while Qi and Feng proposed an effectiveness evaluation model utilizing backpropagation neural networks [27]. Regarding talent cultivation, existing research has primarily focused on addressing the question of “how to develop high-quality vocational talents through IEI.” These studies have proposed recommendations and strategies to enhance talent cultivation quality, mainly from perspectives of curriculum systems, teaching models, and instructional methods [28]. For instance, Laine et al. argued that vocational institutions should leverage their unique strengths to establish talent cultivation curriculum systems, continuously enrich teaching models, and adopt diversified pedagogical approaches within IEI [29]. Whittle and Hutchinson emphasized the need to prioritize the coordination between social development and voca- tional education advancement, suggesting that vocational colleges should design hierarchical curriculum systems, imple-

ment reasonable assessment methods for internship programs, and balance student engagement with corporate interests to stimulate enterprise motivation and ensure talent cultivation quality [30]. Furthermore, discipline-specific investigations have been conducted, such as Ren et al.’s exploration of objectives and models for geology talent cultivation, which iden- tified directions for geological education reform and proposed improvements through new training programs and innova- tions in teaching content and methodologies [31]. Regarding influencing factors, scholars have investigated key determinants affecting the implementation effectiveness of IEI. For instance, Pan and Zhang contend that the ultimate outcomes of vocational education integration depend not on isolated factors but rather on the synergistic interplay of multiple elements, including institutional capacity of vocational colleges, government intervention, and corporate engagement [32]. Thune emphasizes that successful integration hinges on four critical dimensions: goal-aligned partnerships, robust collaboration mechanisms, conflict-resolution communication competencies, and sustainable funding [33]. Furthermore, given that integration should be grounded in stakeholder needs, some studies adopt specific stakeholder perspectives to examine participation willingness and its determinants. A case in point is Zheng et al., who surveyed 184 hydrogen energy enterprises to analyze how resource benefits, economic costs,

and policy subsidies influence corporate engagement willingness [34]. Their findings reveal that universities’ provision of high-quality resources significantly enhances corporate participation propensity. Current research has effectively promoted the development of IEI in vocational education to some extent, but there are still certain limitations. First, many scholars primarily focus on specific issues that need to be addressed during the imple- mentation of IEI, such as which model to adopt or what kind of evaluation system to construct. However, few scholars have conducted systematic and in-depth research on the difficulties existing in the development of IEI, resulting in a lack