Constraints, mechanisms, and strategies for industry-education integration in vocational education: An empirical study

PLOS One | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0339158 December 18, 2025 14 / 18 obligations of vocational institutions and enterprises in IEI should be clearly defined to regulate their conduct while safe- guarding their interests. Second, an evaluation and assessment mechanism should be established to enable comprehen- sive, process-based management, supervision, and evaluation of vocational institutions’ efforts in advancing IEI, thereby increasing institutional commitment. Third, the government should introduce incentive policies, such as rewards and tax benefits, by formulating a clear list of measures for enterprise participation to encourage deeper engagement in IEI. 4.2. Vocational institution: Strengthening the foundation of university-enterprise collaboration The results indicate that weak prior collaboration between vocational institutions and enterprises is another major constraint. To facilitate healthy and sustainable development, vocational institutions should focus on establishing and con- solidating early-stage partnerships to deepen and solidify collaboration. vocational institutions can strengthen university- enterprise collaboration through the following approaches: First, they should proactively seek partnerships with industry-leading enterprises, engaging in joint research and development, curriculum design, work-integrated learning (e.g., internships), and other collaborative activities. Second, vocational institutions and enterprises should jointly establish

industry-academia-research innovation platforms to tackle key technological challenges, assisting enterprises in solving real-world technical problems. Third, vocational institutions should customize employee training and continuing education programs based on enterprise needs, enhancing workforce upskilling and supporting high-quality enterprise development. Table 6. Constraining pathways to IEI development in vocational education. No. Constraining pathway 1 The completeness of policies→The clarity of school-enterprise responsibilities and rights→IEI 2 The completeness of policies→The level of attention given by universities→The degree of teacher involvement→IEI 3 The completeness of policies→The level of attention given by universities→The fluidity of school-enterprise cooperation channels→The willingness of enterprises to cooperate→IEI 4 The completeness of policies→The level of attention given by universities→The adequacy of hardware and software facilities→The align- ment of talent cultivation quality→The willingness of enterprises to cooperate→IEI 5 The closeness of prior university-enterprise collaboration→The degree of teacher involvement→IEI 6 The closeness of prior university-enterprise collaboration→The effectiveness of school-enterprise communication→The degree of teacher involvement→IEI 7 The closeness of prior university-enterprise collaboration→The willingness of enterprises to cooperate→IEI 8 The closeness of prior university-enterprise collaboration→The fluidity of school-enterprise cooperation channels→The willingness of enter-

prises to cooperate→IEI 9 The closeness of prior university-enterprise collaboration→The alignment of talent cultivation quality→The willingness of enterprises to cooperate→IEI 10 The closeness of prior university-enterprise collaboration→The effectiveness of school-enterprise communication→The willingness of enterprises to cooperate→IEI 11 The closeness of prior university-enterprise collaboration→The effectiveness of school-enterprise communication→The alignment of talent cultivation quality→The willingness of enterprises to cooperate→IEI 12 The closeness of prior university-enterprise collaboration→The effectiveness of school-enterprise communication→The differences in talent cultivation philosophies→The willingness of enterprises to cooperate→IEI 13 The closeness of prior university-enterprise collaboration→The effectiveness of school-enterprise communication→The fluidity of school-enterprise cooperation channels→The willingness of enterprises to cooperate→IEI 14 The closeness of prior university-enterprise collaboration→The effectiveness of school-enterprise communication→The achievement of school-enterprise mutual interests→The willingness of enterprises to cooperate→IEI 15 The closeness of prior university-enterprise collaboration→The effectiveness of school-enterprise communication→The differences in talent cultivation philosophies→The alignment of talent cultivation quality→The willingness of enterprises to cooperate→IEI 16 The closeness of prior university-enterprise collaboration→The effectiveness of school-enterprise communication→The clarity of school-

enterprise responsibilities and rights→IEI https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0339158.t006