Are climate change perceptions related with plastic policy support? Effects of climate change skepticism, guilt, and efficacy on the acceptance of the plastic tax

PLOS One | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0337327 December 29, 2025 6 / 30 possessed environmentalist values supported behaviors and policies related to environmental protection [58]. The relationship between environmental values and plastic consumption has been well-established by Heidbreder et al. [27], who demonstrated that pro-environmental values significantly predict reduced plastic consumption and support for plastic reduction policies. Because plastic is one of the risky objects such as nuclear power, we propose the following hypotheses. Hypothesis 1. Higher environmentalism is associated with higher acceptance of the plastic tax. Altruism. The VBN theory proposed by Stern [14] explains eco-friendly behavior based on three concepts, and divides values into altruistic, selfish, and ecological values. Altruistic values are pro-social values that focus on others rather than oneself, recognizing that individuals are interrelated to others. Whereas, egoistic values focus on personal success or wealth accumulation, which means that all thoughts and interests are focused on the self and not on others [59,60]. Ecological value refers to the value of the environment or ecosystem, rather than that of the individual or others, and prioritizes the preservation of ecosystems over humans. Jang et al. [61] showed that altruistic value orientation influenced the intention to purchase eco-friendly food products; in particular, the influence of altruistic value was more than that of

individualistic or ecological values. As altruism is more likely to lead to favorable attitudes toward climate change, it can lead to negative attitudes toward plastic taxes. Hypothesis 2. The higher the level of altruism, the higher acceptance of the plastic tax. Egalitarianism. Douglas et al. [62] consider cultural theory crucial for explaining risk perception and the risk perception paradigm. Cultural theory seeks to explain how people perceive the world and act, and the way an individual perceives the world is determined by the way they live [63]. Cultural values consist of egalitarianism, hierarchy, individualism, and fatalism, and influence the attitudes of individuals [62]. Among the four values, egalitarianism has a strong degree of collectivization, but aims for equality among group members, and the external regulation of individual lives is rather weak. For egalitarians, nature is easily damaged, so they are sensitive to new technologies and environmental issues that may change the state of nature or pose irreparable risks to future generations. In addition, they demonstrate a negative attitude about the exercise of power by experts or institutions. Kahan et al. [24] found that individuals with individualistic values tend to be skeptical about risks such as global warming, while those with egalitarian values tend to agree with the view that global warming is a risk. In other words, because egalitarians are more sensitive to risk issues, they are more likely to be willing to pay the plastic tax to address climate change.

Hypothesis 3. Higher egalitarianism is associated with a higher acceptance of the plastic tax. Materialism. Inglehart [64] explains that the advent of industrialized democracies has led to a shift from materialism to post-materialism by satisfying the most basic values and needs of economic growth and consumption [65]. In other words, while the satisfaction of physiological needs for human survival and the need for safety are directly related to materialism, the values that are pursued after materialistic values are largely realized are dematerialistic values, which are directly related to self-actualization and the main features of the community [66]. According to Kim et al. [65], environmentalism is a value that is mainly discussed in developed countries, and environmentalism boils down to the value of satisfying higher-order needs. Consequently, dematerialization has a positive effect on environmentalism and environmental behavior [67]. Materialistic values represent an important antecedent of attitudes within the TPB model, as evidenced in research by Hurst et al. [68], who demonstrated through meta-analysis that materialism negatively correlates with environmental atti- tudes and behaviors. Similarly, Ku [69] found that materialistic values significantly predicted less environmentally friendly behaviors. As Kilbourne et al. [70] argue, materialistic values predispose individuals toward attitudes that are less support- ive of environmental policies, which directly relates to the attitude component of TPB.