Are climate change perceptions related with plastic policy support? Effects of climate change skepticism, guilt, and efficacy on the acceptance of the plastic tax

PLOS One | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0337327 December 29, 2025 5 / 30 However, very few models explain the public response to plastic tax. We assumed that plastic taxes are associated with attitude and behavior toward climate change because plastics are closely linked to fossil fuel production, which results in climate change. The dominant explanatory theories of climate change-related behavior can be divided into value, risk perception, and planned behavior theories. First, value theory recognizes that values play a key role in shaping individual attitudes toward environmental issues. Values are the fundamental orientations of individuals that are associated with their attitudes and behaviors. For example, the Values-Beliefs-Norms (VBN) theory proposed by Stern [14] explains pro-environmental behavior based on the three concepts of values, beliefs, and norms, and suggests selfish values, altruistic values, and ecological values as anteced- ents. According to VBN theory, values can be defined as ideas that regulate and influence human behavior; specifically, values determine individual beliefs and attitudes and are ideologies and principles that individuals, groups, and societies consider important [42]. Plastic use is linked to human habits. Changing habits requires a fundamental shift in our value system. From this perspective, examining the relationship between human values and plastic tax is necessary. Second, the risk perception paradigm has been widely studied in the context of risky objects, such as nuclear energy.

The risk perception paradigm, also known as the psychometric paradigm, was first discussed by Fischhoff et al. [43]. The risk perception paradigm is characterized by assuming risk as a subjective concept, with risk criteria including social and psychological aspects. It emphasized the importance of perception structures in risk judgment, and scholars focused more on evaluating public consciousness [44–46]. Previous studies have also analyzed risk perception in the context of climate change and global warming [47–49]. This study considers risk perception variables, such as perceived risk, knowledge, government trust, and emotion, as independent variables to determine the acceptance of the plastic tax. Third, this study examined the direct and indirect roles of skepticism, guilt, and climate change-related efficacy. All three variables were derived from the theory of planned behavior (TPB) developed by [16,43,50]. TPB, one of the widely used theories to study the relationship between intention and action, assumes that the most important factor in determining “action” is “intention” [51]. Ajzen [16] acknowledged that not all intentions led to action and that intentions were frequently abandoned, or some were modified to respond to the situation. After conducting a meta-analysis of studies related to the theory of reasoned action and TPB, Sutton [52] stated that the reviewed theoretical models could explain approximately 40–50% of intention on average; however, the explanatory power was decreased to 19–38% when the intention is

followed-up with the intended behavior. TPB is the most popular model used to explain human behavior in the context of climate change [31,53,54], demonstrating that the negative or positive attitude, norm, and climate change-related efficacy are associated with the response to climate change. We aim to further analyze how the three variables derived from TPB—that is, climate change skepticism, guilt, and efficacy—play a role in the relationship between value/risk perception and support for the plastic taxes. This analysis can address the question of whether climate change awareness can drive the acceptance of tax for plastic reduction policies. Values factors Environmentalism. With the increasing environmental crisis, the importance of environmental values has been acknowledged, and interest in environmentalism as an alternative has increased with an amplification of the harmful effects of environmental crisis. Environmentalism encompasses all philosophies, ideologies, and social movements that strive to protect the environment and promote environmental welfare, mainly in terms of preserving or restoring the natural environment. Environmentalism has a negative impact on the acceptance of risky objects (e.g., nuclear energy or climate change). Spence [55] found a negative relationship between climate change concerns and nuclear energy acceptance, with envi- ronmental concerns reducing support for nuclear energy. Park et al. [56] found that environmentalism was statistically

significant in the acceptance of energy price support policies for low-income households. Mozumder [57] found that environmental consciousness has a significant effect on the support for renewable energy. In addition, individuals who