How can climate adaptation policy enhance urban climate resilience? Empirical evidence from China

PLOS One | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0335736 November 6, 2025 2 / 21 indispensable [2]. However, a gap remains between current adaptation levels and those required to address impacts and mitigate climate risks. Funding, knowledge, and practice gaps have been identified as significant systemic barriers [1]. Scholars have actively monitored the progress of climate adaptation policies and actions in various countries. Some scholars have employed textual analysis, ques- tionnaire surveys, and case study methods to explore the planning and diffusion of climate adaptation policies [3,4], as well as the driving forces and obstacles [5,6]. A few scholars have evaluated the effectiveness of climate adaptation policies [7–9]. Fu et al. (2021) described the implementation process of the CACCP policy in China and constructed an index system for climate-adapted cities to evaluate the policy’s performance [7]. Jiang et al. (2023) used remote sensing data to analyze the impact of ecosystem restoration projects on mitigating land degradation [8]. Jee et al. (2024) developed a nonlinear flood damage function, used simulation and prediction techniques to assess the potential impact of a regional climate adaptation policy in Korea [9]. However, most assessment objectives of climate adaptation policies are constrained to quantifying outputs and delineating processes [10]. There is a need for more scientific evaluation of the impacts of climate adaptation policies and the mechanisms through which they operate.

In today’s world, cities are the primary hubs for population aggregation and eco- nomic activity. At the same time, the fragility of the urban ecological environments makes them more susceptible to the impacts of extreme weather shocks. In 2017, the National Development and Reform Commission and the Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development in China jointly issued the Climate Adaptive City Construc- tion Pilot Program (CACCP), establishing 28 pilot cities to improve urban climate adaptability. In 2022 and 2023, China successively issued the National Strategy for Adapting to Climate Change 2035 and the Notice on Deepening the Pilot Program for Climate-Adaptive City Construction, establishing a comprehensive national climate adaptation process. The practical effectiveness of China’s CACCP policy, particularly whether it can enhance climate resilience in typical ecologically fragile regions, is worthy of attention. Since Holling, a Canadian ecologist, first introduced the concept of “resilience” into ecology [11], the idea of “urban resilience” has garnered widespread attention from managers and scholars. Scholars from different disciplines have defined “urban resilience” in various ways; however, most definitions lack clarity [12]. Meerow, New- ell, and Stults (2016) proposed the 5W theoretical model of urban resilience, which comprehensively interprets urban resilience as encompassing the ability to recover, adapt, and transform [13]. In recent years, some scholars have argued that humans

should examine the topic of urban resilience from a broader perspective, pointing out that an essential goal of urban resilience is for humans to adapt to change and thrive in life, thereby mitigating the impact of unexpected risks or pressures [14]. The quantitative methods of urban resilience primarily involve multi-dimensional indicator systems, including those designed for short-term disaster risk prevention [15,16] and integrated systems encompassing economic, social, ecological, and infrastructure aspects [17–19]. As climate issues are becoming a core risk and a massive threat analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.