Pastoralism in the highest peaks: Role of the traditional grazing systems in maintaining biodiversity and ecosystem function in the alpine Himalaya

I conclude with research and policy recommendations that should be part of an improved grazing management policy in the state. 1. Experimental studies reintroducing grazing in small areas in regions where the grazing ban was enacted need to be conducted. Studies with the aim to understand the role of different livestock species and different grazing intensities on biodiversity structure and function need to be conducted. 2. Climate change is among the biggest threats to Himalayan rangelands, a region of immense significance for ecosystem services provided to atleast one fifth of humanity and among the most biodiverse in the world [34,37]. Further research on the role of grazing on combating shrub encroachment in response to climate change that threatens habitat loss is imperative. 3. The present grazing ban policy needs to be revisited with a more holistic approach a. To understand the role of altered herd sizes on diversity and ecosystem function. A com- plete ban of grazers meets neither conservation nor livelihood goals. A comprehensive approach taking into account social, ecological, and economic strategies would be required to meet sustainable goals. b. Explore a payment for ecosystem services schemes for the services provided by pastoral- ists in maintaining biodiversity and ecosystem function. These schemes should be aimed at pastoralists moving away from practicing traditional pastoralism. Similar schemes have been used in Switzerland where “general direct payments” are made for upland farmers to encourage grazing livestock in more difficult conditions [106].

c. Explore the link between the grazing ban policy and increasing incidences of human wildlife conflict as reported by Bhagwat et al. [41]. An efficient compensation scheme for human wildlife conflict that is affecting marginalized communities needs to be developed. d. Enact reforms to improve livelihoods of ex-herders who are products of the grazing ban policy. While the government has made efforts to reduce this economic impact yet Gupta et al. [39] report frustration among ex-herders in response to “a lack of reform to improve ex-herders’ livelihoods” post ban. Supporting information S1 Table. List of species with details on their presence (+) or absence (-) in grazed and ungrazed plots sampled. Unidentified taxa were those that we could not identify at a species, genus, or family. From this preliminary list, a refined list was prepared where synonyms were combined under a single epithet, based on the taxonomic literature. Where genus or species was not identified we used a number. For the purpose of the analysis, name of the species was not imperative but making sure they were distinguishable species. (DOCX) Acknowledgments I would like to thank Dr. Kamaljit Bawa for offering vital comments and edits and Dr. Mahesh Sankaran for his advice on the experimental design. Dharmendra Lamsal assisted with parts of the data collection. I would like to thank the Lachenpa and Dokpa communities of Lachen val- ley and the Dzumsa for their support and enthusiasm. I acknowledge the Department of For-

est, Environment & Wildlife Management, Government of Sikkim for permissions to conduct research in the remote Himalayan localities. PLOS ONE Role of the traditional grazing systems in maintaining biodiversity and ecosystem function in alpine Himalaya PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245221 January 7, 2021 13 / 19