Education as a dimension of human development: A Provincial-level Education Index for Ecuador

leading them to fall behind or leave school early, since not all the provinces are able to offer the same educational quality (poorly qualified teachers) or adequate school infrastructures (difficulties regarding access, electricity, drinking water or sanitation). Moreover, the situa- tion of child labor in those provinces whose productive specialization and the nature of the local labor market increase the opportunity costs of education must be considered. Finally, ethnic and linguistic fragmentation–which is unequally distributed throughout the various provinces–is a major challenge for the Ecuadorian education system, as it is results in a need to take account of the idiosyncrasy of children in the different areas of the country and to guarantee education in indigenous languages, as a first language, and in Spanish, as the language of intercultural relations [43, 44]. Given that one of the priorities of Buen Vivir is the reduction of inter-territorial inequalities [45], the analysis of these inequalities will provide a key tool for decision-making [46]. Thus, this paper provides information on the educational dimension of human development in the Ecuadorian provinces and its evolution over the period covered by the last two rounds (2005– 2006 and 2013–2014) of the Ecuadorian Encuesta de Condiciones de Vida (Living Standards Measurement Survey, or LSMS). For this purpose, a Provincial-level Education Index (PEI) is calculated by using the micro-databases from these two latest rounds of the LSMS. The Ecua-

dorian LSMS is a household survey that offers a multidimensional concept of individual well- being which is in line with the human development paradigm underlying the HDI. However, data provided by a LSMS must be converted into information [47]. In the context of this research, measuring a country’s educational development requires the interpretation of data based on its educational reality. Thus, to carry out this measure, we must consider the struc- ture of the national education system of Ecuador in its latest reforms, focusing on the period covered in the two rounds of the LSMS. Furthermore, for a correct interpretation of provincial differences, we need to explore our understanding of Ecuador’s educational reality within the territorial context of the country. To obtain the PEI, we first estimate the variables mean years of schooling and expected years of schooling for each Ecuadorian province. Secondly, we combine these indicators fol- lowing the UNDP method for obtaining the education component of the HDI. The result is a comparable index that provides insight into the level of educational development of Ecuador- ian provinces. In particular, the PEI allows us to situate this level of educational development in the context of Latin American and Caribbean (LAC) countries with an upper-middle income level such as Ecuador. Finally, we estimate the level of Ecuadorian educational inequal- ity in 2006 and 2014, as well as the contribution of each component of the PEI and of each Ecuadorian province to this inequality.

Although our results indicate an increase in the educational development of Ecuadorian provinces and a slight reduction in inequality, there are still differences between provinces. Our findings are consistent with the provincial socio-economic context and show the effects of certain education policies. Given that the methodological structure of the Ecuadorian LSMS has remained unchanged since its first round, it is to be hoped that the procedure put forward to estimate the PEI might be replicated in future rounds. Thereby it will enable us to extend current knowledge on the distribution of education in Ecuador at a provincial level and thus help public authorities to take more effective education policy decisions. It is worth noting that LAC countries conduct continuous household surveys that provide information on different aspects of the country’s well-being and some of them conduct LSMS on a continuous basis. Therefore, the present research could be used as a guide for obtaining educational development indices at the subna- tional level in other LAC countries. PLOS ONE Education as a dimension of Human development PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0270932 July 8, 2022 3 / 27