Education as a dimension of human development: A Provincial-level Education Index for Ecuador

mind the important role played by the oil sector in Ecuador’s provincial economic structure [100] and the economic boom that the country experienced during the study period, it comes as no surprise that certain oil provinces, such as Pastaza, evidenced some of the highest PEI values. This was mainly due to the favorable evolution of oil prices, which generated a signifi- cant amount public resources that were devoted to education, encouraging families to enroll their children in school. Sucumbı´os, the most populated province in Amazonia, was amongst those to have recorded the lowest PEI values, even though it also exhibited a high degree of production specialization in the oil sector. This may be due to the existence of a dynamic labor market that significantly increases the opportunity costs of education, thereby leading to school lagging, dropout, and child labor. Finally, Chimborazo, one of the poorest provinces in the country (together with Bolı´var, Orellana, and Sucumbı´os) [100] showed the worst PEI value. With a high percentage of indigenous population, its economy is based on a subsistence model in which the agricultural sector, crafts and tourism are activities which tend to generate unskilled labor. Added to this is the strong rural component of the remaining provinces that had a worse PEI value (Cotopaxi and Los Rı´os), which is exacerbated by the fact that the least qualified teachers tend to be concentrated in rural schools [48], and where there are also diffi- culties regarding access and inadequate school infrastructure (drinking water, electricity, and

sanitation). Other reasons behind our results might be due to the policies implemented by the country’s authorities at different administrative levels, the effects of which have begun to be felt during the study period. We are aware that no impact evaluation analyses have been carried out for most of them [103] and that therefore we cannot establish a cause-effect relation to determine what part of the observed effect might correspond to any given policy (net effect). However, said policies might account for the reduction in inequality in education, as already highlighted in some studies [28]. Among these policies, the Ten-Year Education Plan 2006–2015, which aimed to achieve quality basic education for all by 2015, is noteworthy. It also included the second of the Millen- nium Development Goals: achieving universal primary education by 2015 [42]. But, above all, mention should be made of the education reforms undertaken by the Ecuadorian government at all levels of education with the entry into force of the LOES of 2010 and the LOEI of 2011. In addition, some free education policies were implemented with the aim of universalising basic education. These policies mainly affected decentralization in administrative, curricular, and financial decision making, and justified the coordination between the requirements of local development and what is offered by educational institutions, having economic consequences in the area [104]. This boosted parental participation in schools and led to an improvement in the

way education is perceived by families [41]. In addition, the increase in the number of years of compulsory education at pre-school level helped to improve equity, as evidenced by our find- ings concerning the expecting years of schooling indicator. Various studies [105–108] show that early-childhood education exerts a positive effect on the likelihood of children being schooled afterwards, and in terms of preventing them from falling behind or dropping out. Early-child- hood education also seems to positively impact learning outcomes in the early years of primary education, with these effects proving to be greater in the case of children from poor families. Expanding access to early-childhood education is key to enhancing the effectiveness of the edu- cation system and curbing inequality [56], as the literature has evidenced the positive effects that early-childhood education has on disadvantaged children [109]. Secondly, there is the need to consider a series of fee-free policies in education implemented during the period covered in this research, and which might have led to improvements in the component related to expected years of schooling, the estimation of which involves attendance and enrolment rates. PLOS ONE Education as a dimension of Human development PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0270932 July 8, 2022 17 / 27