LIFEPLAN: A worldwide biodiversity sampling design

even describe them. Yet, now is the time to collect an archive of samples, as the species we are looking at might be lost by the time we can identify them. This is not to say that species devoid of a traditional scientific binomial could not contribute to present-day analyses. Of the species detected but not yet assigned a traditional scientific name, we can form species hypotheses and thus efficiently estimate both community-level attributes such as species numbers, as well as spatial and temporal turnover in community composition [22–25]. We can also characterise phylogenetic and functional diversity at the community level [26–30]. And for the interim taxa delimited, we can characterise distributions and their drivers [31]. In terms of the focal ecosystems of LIFEPLAN, we have clearly targeted terrestrial biodiver- sity. Since any realistic sampling scheme will have to select some targets at the expense of oth- ers, we have chosen not to sample plants, or ground or tree crown-dwelling invertebrates. Furthermore, the LIFEPLAN project is not yet using the data collected to its full capacity due to funding and time constraints. More data can be acquired from the collected samples as tech- nology improves. Spore samples are likely also to include pollen, the DNA of which could be sequenced as well, and soil samples will also contain much more than fungi. More groups of vocalising taxa can be identified from audio recordings (such as amphibians and insects).The sampling sites can also be fitted with further sampling devices, such as sampling for aerosol-

borne DNA [32]. Current initiatives include adding site-specific measurements of ecosystem processes. Materials and methods The protocols described in this peer-reviewed article are published on protocols.io, updated March 6, 2024, and are included for printing as S1–S5 Files with this article. Camera. The protocol described in this peer-reviewed article is published on protocols.io, dx.doi.org/10.17504/protocols.io.q26g7pxp1gwz/v3 and is included for printing as S1 File with this article. Audio. The protocol described in this peer-reviewed article is published on protocols.io, dx.doi.org/10.17504/protocols.io.kqdg3xbp1g25/v2 and is included for printing as S2 File with this article. Cyclone sampler. The protocol described in this peer-reviewed article is published on pro- tocols.io, dx.doi.org/10.17504/protocols.io.6qpvr3zn2vmk/v1 and is included for printing as S3 File with this article. Malaise trap. The protocol described in this peer-reviewed article is published on proto- cols.io, dx.doi.org/10.17504/protocols.io.kqdg3xkdqg25/v2 and is included for printing as S4 File with this article. Soil sampling. The protocol described in this peer-reviewed article is published on proto- cols.io, dx.doi.org/10.17504/protocols.io.5jyl8pw9rg2w/v2 and is included for printing as S5 File with this article. Site selection Since biodiversity patterns may be differentially impacted by different community assembly processes at different spatial scales [33, 34], we opted for a hierarchical sampling design, span- ning six orders of magnitude in spatial scales (from 10−1 km to 104 km).

The Global (104 km scale) sampling consisted of 73 sampling stations spread across all con- tinents. Sampling at the National (103 km) scale was based on 43 sampling stations, and at the Nested (102–10−1 km) scale on another 43 sampling stations. Sampling at the National and Nested scales focused on two contrasting locations: the Nordic countries (Finland, Norway, Sweden) and Madagascar. Given their widely different patterns of climatic conditions and PLOS ONE LIFEPLAN: A worldwide biodiversity sampling design PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0313353 December 31, 2024 3 / 15