How to tackle complexity in urban climate resilience? Negotiating climate science, adaptation and multi-level governance in India

evaluate these on the basis of (1) priority (medium, high, very high), (2) implementation time (short-, mid- and long-term) and (3) intervention level (State, city, sub-city, building, etc.). Upon assessment, we found that crucial adaptation measures for temperature rise, heat waves and droughts include conjunctive water management (the coordinated use of both groundwater and surface water in order to maximize sufficient yield), rainwater harvesting, water and energy demand management, strengthening of electricity distribution system, exploring renewable sources such as solar power and biomass, adoption of cool/green roofs, green buildings rating systems; urban greens, cool pavements and tree-lined streets for miti- gating the UHI effect. In addition, an early warning system for heat waves and decentralizing health facilities to provide easy and timely access to health services to the people will create necessary preparedness and resilience. Measures for heavy rainfall and flash floods include improving and maintenance of water conveyance systems, drains, flood gates, dikes, bulk- heads, culverts, bridges, power installations. In buildings, stilts, elevated entrances, green roofs, provision for run-off storage will reduce flood impacts. New cities and revision of Mas- ter Plans in existing cities can incorporate ‘sponge cities’ and ‘urban farming’ features to reduce runoff intensity, peak flow and maintain water balance. To reduce loss to property and life, early warning system, disease surveillance system, primary health centres and mobile clin-

ics can be used to serve slums and low income habitation as these localities are likely to be worst affected. As urban resilience measures, hill and coastal cities should use risk hazard maps for rational land use planning and decision-making. Safety screening studies should be carried out to identify vulnerable slopes for strengthening through natural vegetation and structural measures. 5. Conclusion and recommendations 5.1. Negotiating climate resilience in local planning and governance Unlike developed cities that are more amenable to opting transformative resilience strategies, Indian cities are in a developing process and need to focus on enhancing adaptive capacities while enormously expanding their infrastructure. Developing infrastructure and services that also meet climate requirements will build long-term resilience by reducing the vulnerability and gradually boosting adaptation to the changing climate. Based on the urban governance needs, climate scenarios (future temperature and precipitation changes) and identified adapta- tion measures, we devise urban resilience strategies for the impending climate impacts. These need to be negotiated through policy actions and governance mechanisms by different institu- tions and stakeholders at multiple levels (Table 3). The federal structure of policy-planning and implementation in India makes a potential case for climate resilience by integrating adap- tation at all the three entry points- national, state and local urban levels of governance.

This necessitates appropriate provisions to be incorporated into the Town and Country Planning Act and zoning regulations, development control rules and building bye-laws, dis- trict planning manuals, National Building Code, Urban and Regional Development Plan For- mulation and Implementation Guidelines [79]. Most importantly, resilience measures are to be integrated in different types of city policies/plans (Table 4), in addition to their general pur- pose that ULBs are mandated to frame and execute, particularly master plans, plans related to landuse, water, transport, housing, public health and waste, among others. The building of resilience into urban governance for heat waves, extreme rainfall events, sea level rise, and landslides would invariably span through regulation, provisioning/ enabling and voluntary mechanisms. Capacity building of officials and other stakeholders at all levels- national, state and local needs to be undertaken on climate resilience in government’s urban policies, programmes and projects, as mandatory reforms linked to financial grants. In PLOS ONE Negotiating complexity of climate science, adaptation and multi-level governance in urban resilience PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0253904 July 1, 2021 12 / 21