How to tackle complexity in urban climate resilience? Negotiating climate science, adaptation and multi-level governance in India

Theoretically, there are numerous climate adaptation alternatives and these need to be methodically considered and prioritized (see Fig 4). The primary aim of the adaptation priori- tization is assessment of the options against local needs while avoiding maladaptive practices [76]. During adaptation assessment, all the available alternatives can be listed on the basis of sectors, involved stakeholders or the type of intervention [3]. The prioritization selects ‘transfor- mative’ options over just coping mechanisms and excludes low-priority alternatives and ‘mal- adaptation’ practices. Maladaptation is defined as a process that results in increased vulnerability to climate variability and change, directly or indirectly, and/or significantly undermines capacities or opportunities for present and future adaptation [58, 77, 78]. For instance, the use of air conditioners for cooling in very hot weather can result in enhanced emission of GHGs. During prioritization, our main focus has been to minimizing vulnerability to potential climate impacts and improve city resilience. The resulting adaptation alternatives are reported for temperature rise, heat waves and droughts (S3 Appendix), extreme rainfall and flash floods (S4 Appendix), landslides (S5 Appendix) and sea-level rise (S6 Appendix). We Table 2. Multiple situations of projected temperature and precipitation across Indian states/ regions. Situation Projected temperature Projected precipitation Observation Region/ State (refer Annex 2) Possible adaptation alternatives

1 Increase Increase p Andhra Pradesh & Telangana, Chattisgarh (North), Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra & Goa, Tamil Nadu & Puducherry, Uttarakhand Discussed in section 5.1 (extreme temperature, drought, heat waves) & 5.2 (extreme rainfall, floods) Section 5.3 in particular for hill areas of Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir Section 5.3 in particular for coasts of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra & Goa, Tamil Nadu & Puducherry 2 Increase Decrease p Jharkhand Discussed in section 5.1 3 Decrease Decrease X None observed - 4 Decrease Increase X None observed - 5 Increase Variable/ uncertain trends p North-East & Sikkim, Bihar, Chattisgarh (South), Gujarat, Haryana, Chandigarh and Delhi, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal Discussed in section 5.1 & 5.2 Section 5.3 in particular for coasts of Gujarat, Odisha, West Bengal For details of increase & decrease of projected temperature and precipitation in each state/ region, refer S2 Appendix. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0253904.t002 Fig 4. Assessment of adaptation alternatives. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0253904.g004 PLOS ONE Negotiating complexity of climate science, adaptation and multi-level governance in urban resilience PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0253904 July 1, 2021 11 / 21