Positive relationship between education level and risk perception and behavioral response: A machine learning approach

PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0321153 April 3, 2025 2 / 10 PLOS ONE Positive relationship between education level and risk perception and behavioral response These various perspectives contribute to a deeper understanding of how individuals assess disaster risks based on factors such as the controllability, predictability, and potential losses associated with hazards. Empirical studies in both natural and human-made disasters demon- strate that individuals’ perceptions of risk are shaped not only by the intrinsic characteristics of the disaster itself but also by emotional and cultural influences. For example, Mitsushita et al. [2] discovered that the cognitive frameworks for evaluating disaster risks differ between laypeople and experts, with the former exhibiting stronger emotional responses, such as dread and fear, towards certain hazards. As demonstrated by Bodas et al. [3] in a cross-country study, individuals perceive risks associated with various disaster types (e.g., pandemics, extreme weather events, infrastructure failures) in diverse ways, and these perceptions, in turn, significantly influence their emer- gency response behaviors. Risk perception is a complex, multidimensional construct that encompasses both cognitive evaluations of risk (e.g., likelihood of occurrence) and emotional responses (e.g., dread, fear, or uncertainty). As demonstrated by Bodas et al. [3] in a cross-country study, individuals perceive risks associated with various disaster types (e.g., pandemics, extreme weather events,

infrastructure failures) in diverse ways, and these perceptions, in turn, significantly influence their emergency response behaviors. Consequently, risk perception is not solely an intellectual assessment; rather, it’s a highly subjective and context-dependent phenomenon, shaped by individual experiences as well as broader societal and cultural factors. The relationship between education level and risk perception has garnered significant academic attention. A considerable body of research has indicated that individuals with higher levels of education typically possess a more comprehensive understanding of complex risks and are more inclined to adopt precautionary measures. Bodas et al. [3] demonstrated that individuals with higher educational attainment tend to exhibit greater awareness of disas- ter risks and show a heightened willingness to engage in preparatory actions for potential hazards. This phenomenon has been observed across diverse cultural contexts, with educated individuals being more proficient at processing risk-related information and taking proactive steps toward disaster preparedness. However, the influence of education on risk perception is not always straightforward. In certain instances, individuals with lower levels of education may underestimate the risks associated with disasters due to limited access to or understanding of critical information. For example, Ge et al. [4] conducted a study on flood risk perception in Nanjing, China, and found that individuals with higher educational attainment demonstrated a more accurate

understanding of flood risks and were more likely to adopt protective measures. In contrast, those with lower levels of education tended to downplay the severity of the threat, resulting in less engagement in preventive behaviors. This underscores the notion that while education can enhance awareness and understanding of risks, it may also contribute to disparities in how different demographic groups perceive and respond to hazards. Risk perception plays a critical role in shaping individuals’ disaster preparedness behaviors. The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) has been extensively utilized to examine how risk perception influences preparedness intentions and actions. For instance, Ng [5] employed an extended TPB model to investigate disaster preparedness in a typhoon-prone district of Hong Kong, demonstrating that risk perception had a significant impact on individuals’ prepared- ness intentions. This relationship was further mediated by subjective norms and perceived behavioral control. Individuals with stronger perceptions of risk were more likely to engage in proactive measures to prepare for potential disasters, especially when they felt greater control over their ability to mitigate the associated risks. Similarly, Fang et al. [6] investigated the relationship between risk perception and resistance behaviors among residents living near