Energy self-sufficient households with photovoltaics and electric vehicles are feasible in temperate climate

smart technologies for this may well reduce the required size of batteries and hydrogen storage in buildings, and thus bring costs down substantially. Overall, we find that self-sufficient households are technically feasible across a wide range of scenario combinations. Their financial attractiveness depends on a variety of costs, particu- larly those of storage components, as well as on discount rates and primary energy prices by 2050. Given the perceived attractiveness of completely energy self-sufficient households, it is likely that more such buildings will be constructed even if fully electrified but grid-connected households are substantially less expensive. Falling costs of storage and political will to push for self-sufficiency may well in combination result in such buildings become more common than currently expected. Supporting information S1 Dataset. Definitions of cases and technological assumptions. File name S1_Method- s_TechPotential_And_AltCases. (XLSX) S2 Dataset. Definition of cases with hydrogen production to fulfill requirements of a true zero energy building. File name S2_Methods_Scenarios_Baseline_Optimized. (XLSX) S3 Dataset. Definition of cases with a hydrogen production 1.75 times the amount deter- mined to supply net-negative months. File name S3_Methods_Scenarios_BackupStorage175. (XLSX) S4 Dataset. Definition of cases which are connected to the grid and still use batteries for short-term storage. File name S4_Methods_GridBased_withBatteries. (XLSX) S5 Dataset. Definition of cases which are connected to the grid but do not use batteries for

short-term storage. File name S5_Methods_GridBased_withoutBatteries. (XLSX) Acknowledgments We thank Anthony Patt for helpful comments on developing the grid-connected cases. Stefan Pfenninger acknowledges funding from the Swiss Competence Center for Energy Research − Supply of Electricity (SCCER SoE), contract number 1155002546. Author Contributions Conceptualization: Ursin Gsto¨hl, Stefan Pfenninger. Data curation: Ursin Gsto¨hl. Funding acquisition: Stefan Pfenninger. Investigation: Ursin Gsto¨hl, Stefan Pfenninger. Methodology: Ursin Gsto¨hl, Stefan Pfenninger. Supervision: Stefan Pfenninger. Visualization: Ursin Gsto¨hl, Stefan Pfenninger. Writing – original draft: Ursin Gsto¨hl. Energy self-sufficient households with photovoltaics and electric vehicles are feasible in temperate climate PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227368 March 4, 2020 21 / 25