Mapping the climate and agronomic digital advisory services landscape in West and Central Africa: A step towards making food systems productive and climate resilient

scale successful innovations while addressing gaps in access and affordability. In rural areas, where these prerequisites are often lacking, the scalability and sustainability of digital advisory platforms remain constrained. Addressing these foundational issues is essential for service equity and long-term adoption. Finally, improved data governance, including harmonization and privacy safeguards, are critical for maximizing the value of digital platforms. Addressing these systemic constraints will determine whether digital agriculture evolves into a tool for inclusive climate adaptation or exacerbates existing inequalities. Furthermore, national policy frameworks play a vital role in shaping the digital agriculture landscape. Countries such as Rwanda and Nigeria have implemented progressive policies, including the National Agricultural Technology and Innovation Policy (2022) and Digital Agriculture Strategies, which aim to promote youth engagement, simplify enterprise operations, and improve access to land, credit, and training [48]. These measures have facilitated greater participation among younger, technologically up-to-date farmers—an important demographic for the uptake of digital tools [49,50]. Nonetheless, significant gaps remain in data governance. While open data (e.g., crop, weather, and market data) is key to innovation, limited cross-organizational collaboration and inconsistent regulatory frameworks restrict access—particu- larly for private sector actors and emerging agri-tech start-ups. Issues of data privacy, ownership, and cybersecurity also

persist. Although countries like Ghana, Nigeria, and Rwanda have initiated legislative responses, others—such as Burundi and Ivory coast—lack adequate policies for agricultural data governance. The absence of harmonized and interoperable systems further constrains the scalability and integration of digital services. 4.4. Limitations and future research While this review mapped a diverse range of existing digital solutions, the analysis is limited by data availability, partic- ularly for Burundi, Ivory Coast, and the DRC. Furthermore, the study primarily examined farmer adoption, leaving gaps in understanding how service providers and policymakers utilize these tools. Future research should focus on assessing the effectiveness of DAGs in improving agricultural productivity under climate stress, with attention to gender and equity outcomes, considering the size of country. Longitudinal studies would also help to evaluate whether current innovations deliver sustained resilience over time. In summary, these findings indicate that while digital agriculture is rapidly expanding, its potential to build climate resil- ience is constrained by deep structural and institutional barriers. Closing these gaps will require coordinated investments in infrastructure, digital literacy, and inclusive policy frameworks, alongside efforts to harmonize data and strengthen governance. Moreover, ensuring that digital solutions are accessible to marginalized groups, particularly women and rural

PLOS One | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0338010 December 3, 2025 17 / 20 smallholders, will be critical for achieving equitable adaptation outcomes. Without such measures, DAGs risk reinforcing existing inequalities rather than serving as tools for resilience and transformation. 5. Conclusion This study demonstrates that digital agricultural solutions (DAGs) hold significant potential to strengthen climate resilience and agricultural productivity in West and Central Africa, particularly through mobile-based advisories, climate-smart agriculture practices, and bundled service models that integrate market, financial, and climate services. These tools can reduce smallholder exposure to climate risks by improving access to timely information, resources, and decision support. However, major barriers—including poor infrastructure, high connectivity costs, low digital literacy, and gender disparities—continue to constrain equitable adoption. The predominance of private-sector initiatives has fueled rapid innovation but raises concerns about inclusivity and long-term sustainability without stronger public sector involvement and supportive policy frameworks. Unlocking the full potential of digital agriculture will require targeted investment in rural infrastructure, inclusive training, and gender-responsive approaches, alongside improved public– private collaboration and harmonized data systems. Future research should move beyond mapping existing tools to

rigorously assess their long-term impacts on productivity, equity, and resilience, with particular attention to gender and youth inclusion. Integrating DAGs into broader adaptation strategies that connect technology, institutional capacity, and inclusive policies will be essential to ensuring they contribute to sustainable and equitable food systems under a changing climate. This synthesis paper also highlights the diverse needs and challenges faced by the key user groups of DAGs, and proposes a Human-Centered Design (HCD) approach as a potential solution to improve adoption and impact of these services. Supporting information S1 Fig. Country-wise distribution of existing digital agricultural services in six countries of WCA. (PNG) S2 Fig. Country-wise distribution of innovations providing agronomic services in six countries of WCA. (TIF) S3 Fig. Country-wise distribution of innovations providing digital climate solutions in six countries of WCA. (TIF) S4 Fig. Country-wise distribution of innovations providing market information in the six countries of WCA. (TIF) S5 Fig. Country-wise distribution of innovations providing finance in the six countries of WCA. (TIF) S6 Fig. Country-wise distribution of innovations identified as agricultural service provider in the six countries of WCA. (TIF) S7 Fig. Country-wise distribution of innovations providing crop insurance to different risks in the six countries of WCA. (TIF) S8 Fig. Existing users of digital agricultural solutions in various value chains. (TIF)

PLOS One | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0338010 December 3, 2025 18 / 20 Acknowledgments This work was implemented as part of the CGIAR Regional Integrated Initiative “Transforming Agrifood Systems in West and Central Africa (TAFS-WCA)”. Part of this paper has been published as a synthesis report on CGSpace: Mapping climate and agronomic digital advisory services landscape in West and Central Africa (WCA) | Alliance Bioversity Inter- national – CIAT. The authors also thank Glenn Hyman and Olga Spellman (Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT Science Writing Service) for copy editing and technical review of this manuscript. Author contributions Conceptualization: Manjari Singh, Mathieu Ouedraogo, Daniel Jimenez, Desire Kagabo, Julian Ramirez, Peter Laderach. Data curation: Manjari Singh, Daniel Jimenez, Tiffany Talsma, Adama Ouedraogo. Formal analysis: Manjari Singh, Tiffany Talsma. Funding acquisition: Mathieu Ouedraogo, Julian Ramirez, Peter Laderach. Investigation: Adama Ouedraogo. Methodology: Mathieu Ouedraogo, Daniel Jimenez, Tiffany Talsma, Desire Kagabo, Julian Ramirez, Peter Laderach. Project administration: Mathieu Ouedraogo. Resources: Tiffany Talsma, Adama Ouedraogo. Supervision: Mathieu Ouedraogo, Desire Kagabo, Julian Ramirez, Peter Laderach. Visualization: Manjari Singh. Writing – original draft: Manjari Singh. Writing – review & editing: Manjari Singh, Mathieu Ouedraogo, Daniel Jimenez, Tiffany Talsma. References

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