Designing profitable and climate-smart farms using virtual reality

profession [47, 48]. In Washington (USA), researchers found that the planting sites that pro- vided greatest benefits in terms of environmental outcomes were also the most suitable from an aesthetic point of view [49]. Similar observations have also been made in a study of urban- rural fringes in France [50]. However, there is limited empirical research on the role of trees in the aesthetic value of New Zealand rural landscapes to support the future development of land- scape planning tools [51]. Tacit knowledge We have designed functionality that allows the user to virtually ‘stand on the farm’ as well as gain a wider perspective of the land from an aerial view. The ability to access both viewing per- spectives is important for planning and for organising tacit knowledge (i.e., knowledge based on experience, practice and value) around the farm systems and management practices while interacting with the application. For farm management tools that use mapping interfaces, an aerial view is often the default. These tools often rely on farm maps showing relevant features (e.g., paddocks) and associated attributes (e.g., area). An aerial view helps users to comprehend the spatial arrangement of land blocks, farm amenities and farm activities. With the uptake of new technology enabling precision agriculture, it is likely that the use of spatial data and maps within farm management tools will continue to progress [52]. At the same time, realistic visualisation specific to an indi- vidual land block helps to activate relevant tacit knowledge. It has been suggested that digital

agriculture relying on robotics, sensors and big data will outperform existing farmers knowl- edge [53]. However, it has also been noted that our ability to collect data is currently exceeding our ability to turn it into actionable knowledge for farmers [53, 54]. In this context, it appears critical to find ways to combine the knowledge generated by decision support tools with the farmers tacit knowledge. To stimulate the use of tacit knowledge we have developed a flexible motion system that allows the user to move efficiently within the virtual environment and to easily shift from an aerial view to a stand-on farm view. To move across the landscape, the application offers two locomotion options, including 1) a teleporting system where the user can use the hand control- lers to point at a specific location and be teleported, and, 2) a ‘free-movement’ system via the command analogue to move in any direction. This combination of locomotion systems helps to maximise the user’s ability to explore large virtual landscapes (i.e., in this case 1,600 ha) effi- ciently while reducing the risk of motion sickness. Previous studies have demonstrated that users familiarity with an actual environment influences the way they perceive the virtual repre- sentation of the same environment. For instance, users who are familiar with a location have demonstrated a greater ability to assimilate changes that are made into the virtual world [55]. Further research is required to better measure the influence of tacit knowledge into the use of

3D geovisualisation tools. However, it is evident that digital twins create suitable virtual envi- ronments where users are able to combine their exisiting knowledge with new information dis- played in a virtual sense. The combination of remote sensing, land use data and VR has enabled a digital twin of a live- stock farm in New Zealand to be created. We believe combining these types of technologies will be useful to help farmers understand trade offs arising from various planting strategies because farmers can reconcile their tacit knowledge with available scientific data. We believe this type of digital technology has considerable potential to enhance knowledge transfer to farmers, this includes integration of forestry and livestock farming to meet national emissions objectives. VR applications, similar to the one we have developed, have the capability to depict the aes- thetic outlook of different planting scenarios and therefore can support landscape decision PLOS ONE Designing profitable and climate-smart farms using virtual reality PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0286723 June 2, 2023 11 / 16