Farmers’ beliefs and concerns about climate change, and their adaptation behavior to combat climate change in Saudi Arabia

occurrence of climate change; in other words, they were convinced that there is sufficient evi- dence about the occurrence of climate change. Majority of the farmers (84%) also expressed disagreement with the statement that there is no occurrence of climate change. 3.3. Farmers’ sources of information about climate change and their personal observations Table 3 shows farmers’ sources of information about climate change and their personal obser- vations of changes in rainfall, temperature, and crop productivity over the last 15 years. The findings revealed that farmers’ common sources of information about climate change were Table 1. Farmers’ demographic characteristics. Variable Frequency (n = 80) Percent Variable Frequency (n = 80) Percent Age (Years) Farm ownership 20–40 23 28.7 Rented 15 18.8 41–50 16 20.0 Shared 13 16.3 51–60 25 31.3 Owner 52 65.0 Above 60 16 20.0 Nature of farming activities� Level of education Vegetables 33 41.3 Less than High School 12 15.0 Fruits 32 40.0 High School 16 20.0 Other Crops 57 71.3 Diploma 13 16.3 Soil fertility level Bachelor 28 35.0 Low 11 13.8 Graduate School 11 13.8 Average 56 70.0 Farming experience (Years) High 13 16.3 Less than 10 20 25.0 Access to extension services 11–20 19 23.8 Yes 36 45.0 21–30 23 28.7 No 44 55.0 Above 30 18 22.5 Access to agricultural loans Farm size (Hectares) Yes 19 23.8 Less than 1 ha 31 38.8 No 61 76.3 1–4 ha 19 23.8 Communication with other farmers about climate change Above 4 ha 30 37.5 Yes 50 62.5

Membership of agricultural cooperatives No 30 37.5 Yes 10 12.5 No 70 87.5 �More than one answers were allowed; percentages of categories do not add up to 100. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0280838.t001 Table 2. Frequency distribution of climate change beliefs of the farmers. Statement Strongly Disagree (%) Disagree (%) Neutral (%) Agree (%) Strongly Agree (%) Mean (n = 80) Standard Deviation Climate change is occurring due to anthropogenic activities 8.8 11.3 12.5 50.0 17.5 3.56 1.16 Climate change is occurring due to natural changes 11.3 38.8 17.5 22.5 10.0 2.81 1.20 Climate change is occurring both due to anthropogenic and natural changes 10.0 20.0 28.7 36.3 5.0 3.06 1.08 There is insufficient evidence about the occurrence of climate change 25.0 38.8 22.5 10.0 3.8 2.29 1.07 There is no occurrence of climate change 56.3 27.5 6.3 7.5 2.5 1.73 1.04 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0280838.t002 PLOS ONE Adaptation of climate change among farmers PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0280838 January 25, 2023 7 / 20