Farmers’ beliefs and concerns about climate change, and their adaptation behavior to combat climate change in Saudi Arabia

Aa a result of changes in the climate, global agricultural production systems and food secu- rity are threatened [3,10–13]. The productivity of both irrigated and rain-fed agriculture will be considerably affected. Majority of the world’s population is anticipated to experience the potential negative impacts of climate change. It is anticipated that in many regions, there will be a decrease in crop productivity [14–16]. Climate change is likely to enhance the impact of both biotic and abiotic stresses on agriculture [17]. According to the WHO projections, around 540–590 million people will be undernourished at a warming of 2 degree Celsius [18]. Climate-induced water scarcity may cause some parts of the world to lose their up to 6% of their national Gross Domestic Product (GDP) [19]. The most serious impacts will be in those regions that are already vulnerable to food insecurity and rural poverty [20]. Saudi Arabia is characterized by an arid climate [5,21]. In some parts, temperatures can be more than 50 degree Celsius [5]. Rainfall is extremely limited; long-term average precipitation is around 100 mm per annum. However, in Western parts of the Kingdom, rainfall can rise up to 500 mm per annum [5]. Intense and frequent precipitation events are rare [22]. Over the last 50 years, a 1.9 degree Celsius increase in average temperature was observed [23]. The rate of increase was faster (0.72 degrees C per decade) in the dry season as compared to the wet sea- son (0.51 degrees C per decade) [24]. Several studies predict a 2–4 degree Celsius increase in

the average temperature in the Kingdom by the end of 2100 due to ongoing climatic changes [25–27]. Although significant change in rainfall has not been observed during last 50 years [23], future precipitation projections however suggest a decrease in rainfall in many parts of Saudi Arabia [27,28]. The Kingdom lacks recurrent rivers and permanent water bodies. Saudi Arabia, along with other countries of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) has been classified as water-scarce nations by the United Nations [29]. According to Water Resources Institute, 14 out of 33 countries that are most likely to be water-stressed in 2040 would be in the Middle East, and among them, Saudi Arabia has been ranked at 9th position [30]. Water scarcity increases vulnerability of the region to the impacts of climate change [31]. The arid climate of the Kingdom makes it highly vulnerable to the potential negative impacts of climate change. Variations in temperature and rainfall severely affect food produc- tion. Several studies have reported significant impacts of climate change on agriculture [32– 34]. Date palm production in the Kingdom is predicted to decline significantly owing to unfa- vorable climatic conditions [34]. A 3–5 degree Celsius rise in temperature would pose serious challenges for the agriculture and other economic sectors in the Kingdom [21,34]. Reduction in crop yields may range between 5–25% by just one-degree Celsius increase in temperature [23]. At 1 and 5 degree Celsius increase in temperature, irrigation water requirements of vari-

ous crop would increase by 602 and 3,122 million Cusic meters, respectively [35]. Global warming could increase agricultural water demand around 5–15% to sustain current levels of agricultural production [26]. As 90% of agriculture in Saudi Arabia is irrigated, yields will be significantly reduced due to water scarcity [36]. About 70% of the annual water use is con- sumed by the agricultural sector [23]. A change in abundance and distribution of diurnal des- ert animals may also happen due to global warming [25]. A decrease in local food production will affect the national food security; food prices at the domestic level will be on rise, and it would also lead to higher food imports, increasing depen- dency of the Kingdom on other countries for its food security [37]. Therefore, the Kingdom is serious undertaking climate change adaptation and mitigation measures by employing various institutional options as well as facilitations of different stakeholders for combating this global problem [23]. Farmers are key stakeholders in this regard as they are not only directly affected by climate change, but their actions can also contribute towards climate change. Globally, there is a consensus among different nations about the ongoing issue of climate change and its underlying causes. This paved the way toward the formulation of an PLOS ONE Adaptation of climate change among farmers PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0280838 January 25, 2023 2 / 20 Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.