Wind disasters adaptation in cities in a changing climate: A systematic review

Ghaffarian et al. recognized vulnerability and resilience as two crucial dimensions in pre- disaster conditions for urban disaster management [61]. By establishing a vulnerability index to wind-related disasters at the city level, more vulnerable sectors can be identified, and this will tremendously help with planning and mitigation [56, 62–64]. It is crucial when cities have limited resources and need to allocate them effectively. The vulnerability index can also be established for specific sectors and specific disasters, e.g., Mallari et al. formed a vulnerability index for the agriculture sector against typhoons [65], and Martı´nez Me´ndez et al. made one for water infrastructures against hurricanes [66]. Likewise, scientists built frameworks for assessing the resilience of cities [67, 68] and for exploring important factors that contribute to the city’s resilience [69, 70]. McMillen et al. further discussed the application of resilience indi- cators in practical management operations either at the community or the city level [71]. Ecosystems play an important role in reducing vulnerabilities to climate change and hydro- meteorological disasters [72, 73]. Meanwhile, community-based green practices such as gar- dens, are viewed as vital parts of the recovery processes after hurricanes [52, 74]. However, the development of urban areas and the destruction of hurricanes have led to less protection of ecosystems in cities [75–77]. Therefore, regulations and policies should are demanded to

strengthen the resilience of urban ecosystems [78]. Infrastructures in coastal areas are exposed to greater risks of cyclonic storms [79], and economic damage of infrastructures induced by hurricanes is expected to increase due to climate change [80]. Hence, adaptation measures such as improving construction standards are in urgent need [81]. Although adaptation measures can bring about economic benefits and reduce a city’s vul- nerability [82], they have the potential to cause negative effects on social capitals [83].There- fore, it is of vital significance to explore the optimal adaptation measures [84] and decide when to implement them in a structured way [85]. In coastal conditions, they should be flexible and diverse enough to cope with more powerful storms and floods in the future [86]. Scientists sug- gested scenario planning as an effective tool in ensuring flexible adaptation in given conditions [87]. Solecki et al. proposed a risk management framework that allows flexible changes of man- agement patterns according to disasters [88]. Nevertheless, resilience-building still has to face multiple challenges that come from governance, finance, etc [89]. Besides, high-level adapta- tion actions are not yet in place [90]. To summarize, the first two topics discussed the vulnerability and resilience of coastal areas in the background of climate change and how to identify vulnerable parts by establishing an index. Ecosystem-based measures are highlighted to help develop social resilience and adapta-

tion measures are suggested to be implemented based on scientific frameworks. Damage evaluation. Topic 3, 4, 5, and 6 are related to the damages of wind-related disas- ters. The integration of urbanization, climate change, and storm surges are causing damages to cities [91]. The wind could either cause damages directly [92, 93] or induce secondary disasters such as snowfalls, extreme precipitations, and landslides [94–96]. Development of residential areas and migration to risky zones have increased exposure to tropical cyclones [97, 98]. Cumulative damages are expected to increase due to the rise of sea level and increase in the fre- quency of storms [99]. False psychological perception of extreme events can result in more severe suffering of damages [100]. The African-American community, women, and the elderly are reported to be the most affected demographic groups by hurricanes and extreme events [101, 102]. Floods along with wind-related storms are becoming principal hazards to cities [103, 104] by primarily causing damages to building structures [105]. Factors such as climate change, tropical cyclones, rainfall, and land use types are often taken into account when assessing cur- rent or future risks of floods [106–109]. Flood mapping is the main method used to present the spatial distribution of flooding risks. Based on the definition of risk, researchers usually PLOS ONE Review on wind adaptation in cities PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0248503 March 17, 2021 9 / 26