Mapping of biodiversity hubs and key ecosystem services as a tool for shaping optimal areas for conservation

even though they represent at least 95% of all species in East African region due to the fact that they are still largely undocumented [38]. To ensure the comprehensiveness of our catalogue, we have reviewed published and unpublished literature respective to plant and animals in dif- ferent ecosystems of Rwanda. To map habitat distribution of threatened species in Rwanda, we have recorded the district in which the species were spotted or the location mentioned in the species description by different literature. For mammals, Sun, Bariyanga, and Wronski [39] provided an avant-garde document, the overview of available literature into historical context on mammals’ conservation in Rwanda. Amongst the most evocative ones, we have consulted Mammals of Africa, one of the most comprehensive mammalian inventories that have been conducted on the African continent. By documenting more than 10,000 species of mammals with illustrations, the book highlights the richest diversity of mammals on the continent [40]. We have also consulted the first mammal catalogue for Rwanda [41] and the first scientific exploration reports on the mammalian community in PA. [42–45]. We have also consulted the most recent report with a clear focus on large mammalian species [17, 46–49]. Beyond Mam- mals, other taxonomic groups were covered by ‘The bird & Mammal lists of Nyungwe National Park’ [50], The biodiversity of Buhanga relict forest [51], Inventory and mapping of threatened remnant terrestrial ecosystems outside PA through Rwanda [52], Biodiversity

inventory for key wetlands in Rwanda [53]. The fifth national report to the convention on Bio- logical diversity [54], and the study to establish a national list of threatened terrestrial ecosys- tems and species in need of protection in Rwanda [55]. The final selected list contains a total number of 810 species, including 217 plants, 142 mammals, 368 birds, 16 fish, 35 amphibians, and 32 reptiles. For the details of all species evaluated, see the S1 Appendix. 2.4 Rwanda’s threatened species list and mapping 2.4.1. Rwanda’s list of threatened species. The level of threat against particular species was also highly considered. We couldn’t think of any better indicator of the health and status of species than the world’s most comprehensive information source on the global extinction risk status of animal, fungus and plant species namely the International Union for Conserva- tion of Nature’s Red List of Threatened Species (IUCN Red List) for Rwanda, under different categories such as Extinct (EX), Critically Endangered (CR), Endangered (EN), and Vulnera- ble (VU). IUCN revealed that 26% of mammals, 14% of birds, and 41% amphibians are threat- ened globally [56]. In order to further enrich and complement our list, we have judged it more beneficial to add more information about the species survival threat caused by international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants as indicated by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) [57]. 2.4.2. Mapping Rwanda’s threatened species. The endangered species from all taxo-

nomic groups are supposedly a portion of a long list of species hence, we have assumed that the thematic maps of Rwanda’s threatened species represent a sub-set of the thematic maps of a given taxonomic group. No threatened species will appear in different locations than the locations of the species themselves. 2.5 Ecosystems service mapping Conservation efforts have difficulty obtaining financial and social support for PA that do not demonstrate their tangible benefits for society [58]. ES are the direct and indirect contribu- tions of ecosystems to human well-being. They directly or indirectly support human survival and quality of life [59]. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA), a major UN-sponsored effort to analyze the impact of human actions on ecosystems and human well-being, identified four major categories of ES: provisioning, regulating, cultural and supporting services. An PLOS ONE How do old national parks cope with regenerating conservation mission? PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0253151 August 17, 2021 6 / 20