Biodiversity hotspot assessment in the Altai Mountains transboundary region based on Mammals and Aves

two or more countries [3, 4]. Land borders as an economic, political and symbolic resource [5]. Since the 1990s, more than 40 multifaceted geo-cooperation mechanisms have been estab- lished between Mainland Southeast Asia (MSEA) and its neighboring countries (e.g., China and India), turning MSEA into one of the most promising economies in the world [6]. The main purpose of these cooperation mechanisms is to promote peace, stability, economic pros- perity and mutual cooperation in the region. The socioeconomic development of border areas has been significantly improved [7, 8]. But with global regional cooperation, geopolitical rela- tions have taken on a new pattern, which has also brought about rapid and extensive boundary land use and cover change (LULCC) [9–11]. National boundaries areas have the same or simi- lar ecological and geographical structure, but show different LULCC trends based on different sovereign jurisdictions [11]. In addition, transboundary landscapes often overlap with BHs, contain critically important ecosystems and provide critical habitat for threatened species. Mountain transboundary region often harbor rich biodiversity, but at the same time, the protection of transboundary species also faces huge challenges [12–14]. With the impact of global climate change, there will be significant impacts on the ecosystems of various regions [15, 16], which is considered one of the major threats to biodiversity and ecosystems [17, 18]. Natural factors such as climate change may exacerbate ecological risks by changing habitat

environments and causing more frequent natural disasters [19–21]. Existing research shows that animals will change their habitat and migrate when exposed to external threats [22–24]. The pessimism is that conservation actions are highly dependent on sovereignty demarcated by national borders, and conservation planning in neighboring countries is often uncoordi- nated [12], even more pessimistically, due to border control (such as setting up border walls, etc.), artificially separating animal habitats and migration corridors, causing ecological tragedy [25], therefore scientifically identify BHs distribution and migration corridors, and cooperate to promote key ecological source areas (KBAs) protection and construction of transboundary corridors are the common responsibilities of transboundary regions. The Altai Mountains transboundary region (AMTR) located in Central Asia and spanning China, Mongolia, Kazakhstan, and Russia, is a transnational region with diverse ecosystems ranging from alpine meadows and coniferous forests to pristine rivers and rugged [26]. The Altai Mountains, located in the middle of the Asian continent and spanning China, Mongolia, Kazakhstan, and Russia, are a prime example of such biodiversity richness. This region hosts a wide variety of flora and fauna, including endemic and globally threatened species. Vegetation in the Altai Mountains ranges from coniferous and deciduous broad-leaved forests to alpine meadows and shrublands, supporting species such as Siberian fir, Siberian larch, birch, Mon-

golian oak, and various endemic plants like Altai Daphne and Altai Lithospermum. Fauna includes iconic species such as the snow leopard, Altai maral, lynx, and a diverse array of bird species including the Altai woodpecker and golden eagle. It has been included in the "Global 200" priority protected ecological areas, also hosts many endemic and globally threatened spe- cies [27, 28]. However, transboundary cooperation mechanisms and actions in this region are obviously insufficient. In AMTR, socioeconomic development depends on the utilization of natural resources. Due to the poverty of local people and the expected (international) interest in the natural resources, industrial and infrastructure projects will face increased pressure. In addition, ineffective pasture management, climate change, etc. have caused LULCC, and poaching, border walls, etc. have become major threats to wildlife. Although these four coun- tries have established many protected areas in AMTR, protection measures need to be strengthened. To protect fragmented habitats, especially measuring the impacts of anthropo- genic activities and climate change [29, 30], assessment and optimization of protected areas. The diverse ecosystem of AMTR supports a wide range of species, making it an important global biodiversity conservation area. PLOS ONE Biodiversity hotspot assessment in the Altai Mountains transboundary region PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0314075 December 4, 2024 2 / 20 funders had role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of

the manuscript. There was no additional external funding received for this study. Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.