Livelihood vulnerability household fishermen household due to climate change in Lampung Province, Indonesia

decreased fish catches [15]. In addition, climate change also impacts the biology of fish and plankton life in terms of developmental rates, reproduction, behaviour and survival [16]. The results of the study by [17] revealed that over the past ten years, because of climate vari- ability, about 20% of the heads of fishing households on the East Coast of Bangladesh have switched professions from fishing to non-capture fisheries, such as becoming pedicab drivers, small businesses, and food crop farming, which is increasing in the fishing villages studied. Based on 2011 and 2021 data in rural coastal areas in Indonesia, there is also a shift in business activities, namely from capture fishermen and pond farmers to rice farming and non-agricul- tural activities, which encourages the phenomenon of urbanization [18]. However, some fish- ermen are applying their traditional knowledge to cope with climate change pressures and preserve coastal biodiversity. Studies related to social vulnerability and community strategies to adapt to climate change in coastal Brazil found that remoteness and a lack of institutional support related to climate change increased the vulnerability of fishing communities [19]. The results of a study [20] in Zhoushan City, Zhejiang Province, China, showed that highly vulnerable fishers amounted to about 37.35%, and they had some unique characteristics such as advanced age and low education level. The livelihood vulnerability of fishermen engaged in recreational fishing is relatively low, while those engaged in non-fishing differ greatly from

each other. It means that there has been a shift from capture fisheries and aquaculture activities to non-agricultural activities, with quite diverse activities. The findings of the study, as determined through the utilization of the Tobit model as expounded by [21], reveal a robust influence of asset wealth, household composition, local institutional factors, and location-specific attributes inherent to the two studied villages on households’ choices to engage in diverse fisheries activities. In addition, the results revealed that ownership of fishing assets and the influence of access were the main determinants of vari- ations in total household income. The results of the regression analysis showed that the num- ber of household income sources, the impact of disturbance, and equipped fishery facilities can affect the livelihood vulnerability of fishers. It was found that small-scale fishers in both the upper and lower strata in Tegal Regency, Central Java Province, are less resilient to climate variability [22]. Upper-layer fishers use physical and financial capital for exploitation and spa- tial strategies. On the other hand, lower-layer fishermen use more of their social capital, such as group affiliation, building mutual trust, and a patron-client system based on the moral econ- omy. The conceptual model of coastal village development in Donggala Regency, Central Sula- wesi Province, that implements an ethical coastal area management approach integrated into the fisheries agribusiness system can have implications for community protection, income

generation, and sustainable fisheries management [23]. Most fishing communities in Bandar Lampung, South Lampung Regency, and Tanggamus Regency use the proceeds from fishing as their main source of income. Climate variability affects water conditions that directly impact communities that depend on marine ecosystems. Supported again by the results of research [24], climate change has a tremendous impact on reducing the socio-economic status of fishermen, reducing their sources of livelihood, low- income levels, and poor health. Weather conditions over the past year in sea waters and coastal areas of Lampung can be said to be erratic, so there is uncertainty in fishing, and fishermen’s income has decreased. Traditional capture fishermen in the three districts are classified as small-scale fishermen and still use traditional fishing gear, making it difficult for fishermen to deal with the impacts of increasingly extreme climate variability. Therefore, a decrease in income because of the impact of climate variability has the potential to cause traditional cap- ture fisher households in the three districts to experience vulnerability. The problems of small-scale fisheries include low economic performance and limited ability or expertise to deal with global pressures, including climate change [22]. Livelihood PLOS ONE Livelihood vulnerability household fishermen due to climate change in lampung province PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0315051 December 31, 2024 3 / 20