Livelihood vulnerability household fishermen household due to climate change in Lampung Province, Indonesia

abundant fisheries and marine resources. The marine and fisheries sector is also one of the economic sectors that play an important role in national economic development, especially in providing animal protein food, earning foreign exchange, providing employment, and provid- ing a source of income for fishermen and fish farmers. Lampung Province stands as a region endowed with substantial fisheries and marine resources, spanning the expanse of the East Coast of Lampung Province. Nevertheless, the past five years have witnessed a marked decline in the average production of capture fisheries within Lampung Province. This decline in production can be primarily attributed to the increasingly unpredictable state of sea waters within the Lampung region, which is rooted in the vagaries of seasonal variations and climatic patterns affecting Lampung waters. The velocity of prevailing winds and the extent of precipitation notably shaped these fluctu- ations in seasonality and weather patterns. Referring to Lampung Province BPS data [2] it is known that the average wind speed in Lampung Province over the past five years has fluctu- ated. Wind speed caused by temperature and pressure in the atmosphere is one of the natural factors that affect the condition of Lampung waters. Wind direction and ocean currents from the South China Sea (South China Sea monsoon) and Indian Ocean Dipole affect the condi- tion of waters in Sumatra such as in Lampung Bay [3] Wind direction, Mount Krakatau, mon- soon winds, air temperature (land and ocean) affect rainfall. The rainfall of Lampung Province

from November is also in the Medium-High criteria (151–400 mm/month) with normal (N) to above normal (AN) rainfall properties [4]. High rainfall can affect fishermen’s activities in fishing so that it will affect income. In addition to rainfall, wind direction also affects the con- dition of marine waters and the occurrence of extreme weather. This extreme weather condi- tion is climate change. The uncertain condition of sea waters due to the influence of extreme weather affects the activities of fishermen in catching fish at sea and has an impact on reducing the catch of fishermen. This is in line with research [5], where the number of rainy days and the amount of rainfall affect the production of fish catches. Global warming over the past century has resulted in climate change and extreme weather, most of which are indicated as environmental disasters such as the phenomenon of floods, droughts and shifts in the rainy season [6]. Rising temperatures, sea level rise, extreme rainfall and extreme winds are causing erosion of coastal areas and mangroves and degradation of marine resources. In turn, these issues impact small-scale fishers who rely heavily on weather stability to conduct their social and economic activities [7]. Extreme weather is an ecological symptom that arises as a result of climate change that affects the activities of fishermen at sea. Annual climate variability in Indonesia is generally described by a seasonal cycle, known as the Asia—Australia Monsoon Circulation System [8]. Climate variability can cause several

impacts, such as unpredictable and erratic rainfall, seasonal shifts and uncertainty, changes in sea surface temperature, changes in wind patterns and high waves that can cause fishermen to fail to go to sea, as well as changes in rainfall patterns, flooding, and drought phenomena [9]. In general, fishers who depend highly on natural stability are heavily impacted by these changes; therefore, strengthening their adaptability is seen as the best response [10]. Seasonal changes that occur within a certain period of time have an impact that begins to be felt and becomes a threat to human life, especially fishermen whose lives depend on nature [11]. Climate change is also likely to have severe biological and economic consequences [12], climate change and pollution have a negative impact on fishing activities by fishermen. Fisher- men report difficulties in meeting basic livelihood needs, including feeding families, paying children’s school fees, and paying hospital and utility costs [13]. Climate change and extreme weather have had the effect of reducing the level and stability of fishermen’s incomes [14]. The impacts of climate change on fisher households include difficulty predicting fishing seasons, changes in fishing locations, reduced fishing frequency and unpredictable fishing times, and PLOS ONE Livelihood vulnerability household fishermen due to climate change in lampung province PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0315051 December 31, 2024 2 / 20