Use of instructional videos in leadership education in higher education under COVID-19: A qualitative study

across disciplines [116]. Hence, education practitioners should adjust the video arrangement based on their situations and the needs of their students. Moreover, this study demonstrated that various video design features could enhance univer- sity students’ learning effectiveness, which supported the multimedia learning theories. The mul- timedia learning theories stated that the use of flow charts and tables and the highlighting of key points in multimedia reduced the extraneous cognitive load on learners, which could improve their learning efficiency [86, 89]. Also, the presentation of visual illustrations along with voiceover narrations could increase the learning efficiency of students [32, 90]. These findings not only sup- ported the multimedia learning theories, but also provided design reference for education practi- tioners to develop university-level educational videos in the future. Interested parties could refer to the articles by Castillo et al. [117] and Brame [118] for comprehensive guidelines on the con- tent design and the production of educational videos in a non-studio setting. 4.4. Recommendations for further research The current research was conducted under the COVID-19 pandemic, when universities were forced to adopt synchronous or asynchronous online teaching to sustain teaching and learning amid the pandemic. Research participants in the current study needed to attend online syn- chronous lectures and watched the videos in a flipped classroom arrangement. Future research

was recommended to be conducted in face-to-face or hybrid teaching context [119, 120], so the benefits of educational videos under different teaching and learning contexts could be examined. Moreover, the current study found that different video design features could enhance university students’ learning effectiveness, supporting the multimedia learning theo- ries. Because the application of multimedia learning theories in designing university-level Table 3. (Continued) Quantitative study Qualitative study Questionnaire items for the 15 animated videos on theories/concepts Positive response rates Corresponding themes in the current focus group study Corresponding findings 8. The teacher has used the video effectively. 98.52% to 96.98% Video arrangement In terms of the connection between the case-based videos and the lectures, the students thought that they were closely related because some teachers discussed the cases during lectures, while other teachers shared personal experience that were related to the videos (N = 20). 9. I have been very engaged in the video- based activity. 97.87% to 92.61% Videos’ benefits to the students’ class participation The videos could also be used for class discussion, which increased students’ motivation (N = 7). 10. The video-based activity has deepened my understanding of the topic. 98.32% to 96.87% Videos’ benefits to the students’ learning of course content The case-based videos applied theories to some real-life cases or social issue, so students could understand the concepts very easily. 11. The video-based activity has enabled

me to apply the theories in real life cases. 97.67% to 93.60% Videos’ benefits to the students’ learning of course content The case-based videos were related to students’ daily lives, so they could learn application of the theories in their daily lives. 12. The video-based activity has enhanced my interests in the topic. 97.21% to 92.84% Videos’ benefits to the students’ class participation Students were able to gain more interest in the lecture topics after knowing the content from the videos (N = 20). 13. The video has helped me reflect on the subject matters. 98.04% to 96.07% Videos’ benefits to the students’ learning of course content Students could have self-reflection after watching the case-based videos, which was helpful for them to gain more positive mindset. 14. I prefer more such video-based activities in the teaching and learning of this subject. 97.75% to 94.08% n/a n/a Questionnaire Items on the Effectiveness of the Lecture Positive Response rates Corresponding themes in this focus group study Corresponding Findings 1. Overall speaking, the lecture has enriched my development. 98.78% to 92.77% n/a n/a 2. On the whole, I am very satisfied with this lecture. 98.15% to 92.71% n/a n/a https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0291861.t003 PLOS ONE Qualitative evaluation of virtual teaching and learning videos in leadership education PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0291861 September 21, 2023 21 / 28