Use of instructional videos in leadership education in higher education under COVID-19: A qualitative study

teaching mode and technology-supported active learning. Moreover, researchers argued that the post-pandemic pedagogy could harmoniously integrate technology and physical tools because of technology’s high penetration among Generation Z students, its capability in enhancing teaching and learning effectiveness, and its potential of preparing subjects for unknown future challenges [6, 7]. Online education could be delivered through synchronous (i.e., real-time lecture through the internet) and asynchronous (i.e., pre-recorded lectures) teaching and learning modes. Also, blended or hybrid learning (i.e., combination of online education and traditional class- room teaching) has been shown to optimize students’ online learning experience under the pandemic [8, 9]. Additionally, massive open online courses (MOOCs), which are non-credit online courses for learners not enrolled in higher education institutions, were offered by pri- vate companies (e.g., Udacity and Coursera) and universities (e.g., Stanford University) to mil- lions of learners worldwide [10]. Video-based learning is defined as the learning through the use of videos, which is com- prised of visual and audio cues to present information for learners [11]. It is recognized as a powerful resource for online teaching and learning [12]. Under the pandemic, the use of video-based learning in online education also increased. It was found that, when the lockdown measures were in place during the pandemic, there was a significant increase in the number

and diversity of didactic resources (i.e., video and audio files) in flipped classroom sessions [13]. Video-based learning could bring various learning benefits to students, including enhancing learning outcome, providing flexibility to learn at their own pace, and improving participation in online discussion [11]. In addition, videos could be combined with various teaching methods, including mobile-assisted learning and flipped classroom approach, to opti- mize students’ learning process. For example, exploring the use of videos and texts in mobile learning, Reychav and Wu [14] and Wang [15] found that videos could improve students’ individual learning outcome. Combining with the flipped classroom approach, Wikandari et al. [16] found that animated videos could significantly enhance university students’ ability in comprehension and application. Obviously, there is a need to ask whether virtual teaching and learning tools (e.g., videos) can promote the mental health of students, which is an impor- tant pillar in public health. Under the pandemic, there was an increased use of emergency remote teaching because school lockdown policies were implemented in many countries [17–20]. However, in online learning, students may feel isolated, bored, anxious or frustrated. The lack of instant feedback from teachers may decrease their motivation [21–23]. In hybrid learning, students may face difficulties in self-regulation [24]. Moreover, online learning may pose public health risk for adolescents. Studies suggested that prolonged exposure to digital devices may lead to mental

health problems in learners. Stressors related to quarantine and lockdown plus mental health problems from prolonged screen time may result in burnout and exhaustion in learners [25]. Therefore, it is important to design curriculum materials that could motivate students to learn and reduce their risk of developing mental health problems in an online learning environment. Studies showed that instructional videos could enhance students’ interest in the course content and their learning motivation [26, 27]. Based on the cognitive theory of multimedia learning, Chen [28] found that videos provided self-controlled learning environment for students, so they could easily locate the content they want. The concise text and images in videos could also reinforce students’ learning. Moreover, the audio and visual stimuli in videos could enhance learners’ learning effectiveness and reduce their extraneous cognitive load when processing information. Video was also found to be a more effective learning tool than the sole presenta- tion of text [29–31]. In the post-pandemic period, researchers viewed instructional videos as valuable original online learning resources for higher education courses [32]. PLOS ONE Qualitative evaluation of virtual teaching and learning videos in leadership education PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0291861 September 21, 2023 2 / 28 Professor of Applied Social Sciences OR Professor Elsie Yan (elsie.yan@polyu.edu.hk), Chairperson of the Departmental Research Committee overseeing research ethics approval, The Hong Kong

Polytechnic University. The data are not publicly available due to serious ethical concerns regarding the publication of focus group interview transcripts in a public repository. Specifically, when the data were collected, participants only gave consent for the findings to be published anonymously for educational and research purposes. Making the data public would violate this consent. Funding: This project was financially supported by the University Grants Committee on the development of virtual teaching and learning materials (3.54.xx.89PZ), and Dr. Daniel Shek Matching Fund from PolyU (1.54.xx.52UK). The preparation of this paper was supported by the Li and Fung Endowed Professorship for Dr. Daniel Shek at The Hong Kong Polytechnic Universit. Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.