Climate change: A pointer to increased small-scale fisher drowning deaths

risk factors, such as weather conditions (rain, wind), boat maintenance and safety equipment (navigation, life jacket), and use of alcohol or drug. Where the BMU member was unable to provide sufficient information, a close relative or colleague of the deceased, who knew the deceased or who was close to the scene of the incident, was identified to provide information about the deceased and circumstances surrounding the incident. The questionnaires were digi- tized on Kobo Toolbox. The leader of the BMU was interviewed using the key informant interview guide. Interviews discussed existing socio-cultural perceptions on fisher drowning and prevailing drowning risk factors. The key informants also provided administrative information and managerial views on the risk management environment, policy framework, and recommendations on possible interventions for hazard mitigation. This research was approved by Cornell University’s Insti- tutional Review Board and participants granted written informed consent. Data analysis To examine the contribution of extreme weather to fisher drowning deaths relative to other risk factors, we analyzed the frequencies with which weather or weather-related variables (heavy rain, strong wind, rough water) and other risk factors (non-use navigation equipment or life jacket, non-motorized boat, inability to swim, use of alcohol or drug, poor boat mainte- nance) were involved in fisher drowning death incidents. To investigate the relative degree to which other risk factors compound or are compounded by the effect of bad weather, we looked

at the co-occurrence of bad weather and other risk factors in drowning incidents. To do that, we calculated the frequencies of other risk factors among the incidents that involved bad weather. Statistical analyses were done with R [45]. Key informant interview responses were thematically coded. A stakeholder analysis was then carried out based on information shared within interviews. A stakeholder analysis is used for designing a program or intervention. The objectives of a stakeholder analysis are to identify the stakeholders of an intervention, their level of influence, their interests, the contribution they can make, and how to engage them [46]. Stakeholders can be individuals, groups, or orga- nizations which can be impacted by the planned intervention or influence its outcomes. The methodology was adapted from the Stakeholder Analysis Matrix Toolkit [46] and Plummer et al. [47]. Results Characteristics of the deceased fishers and their boats We identified a total of 141 fisher drowning deaths (Table 1). Nearly all the drowning victims in our study were males (140, 99.3%) and most had primary education (70.9%). The average age of deceased fishers was 32.7 years and average household size was 5 people. Drowning risk factors Bad weather was described as the cause of 41.8% of incidents. Conditions of rough water (47.5%), strong wind (46.8%), and heavy rain (12.1%) were frequently identified as affecting the boats during the incidents (Fig 2, Table 2). Respondents generally reported that boats were adequately maintained (85.1%) when

drowning incidents occurred. Half of boats (49.6%) involved in incidents were non-motorized, meaning using sails or paddles. Life jacket or life buoys and navigation or communication equipment were used in only 19.8% and 12.8% of the incidents, respectively (Fig 2, Table 2). PLOS ONE Climate change and small-scale fisher drowning deaths PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0302397 May 22, 2024 5 / 16