Legume integration in smallholder farming systems for food security and resilience to climate change

ecology regions [44]. They are common in areas where carbohydrates reach root crops such as cassava, enset, taro, etc. grow and where agroforestry farming practices are common. Southern Ethiopia region is known for agroforestry farming where those legumes become the most important sources of protein for the communities. Studies show that through- out the 1990s and 2010s, there was an increase in the production of legumes, and the export values climbed [42]. The National Statistical Agency reported the area under cultivation and production for the top 10 edible legume crops. In terms of the proportion of the national area production, faba bean (4%), common bean (2.4%), chickpea (1.7%), and field pea (1.69%) are among the major legume crops [11]. Actually, the common bean is one of the Ethiopia’s most extensively produced legume crop. It is a valuable source of food, revenue, soil fertility management, medicinal, fodder, and honeybee feed [43]. Their leftovers are used for cattle food and bedding, as well as mulching, fire, and roofing [46]. Its key production areas today include Ethiopia’s central, eastern, and southern regions [44]. It thrives in a wide range of environmental circumstances, including well-watered and drought- prone locations between 1000 and 2200 meters above sea level [45]. Smallholder farmers use conventional agronomic approaches to produce common bean crops. It is grown in home gardens and fields throughout its range. It is usually grown for household consumption or sale in local markets, and it has served as a small export crop for over 40 years [43].

Legume cultivation across all agro-climatic zones within the region is quite remarkable. Soybean, cowpea, mung bean, and groundnut are examples of crops that thrive in lowland areas, while other legumes grow in mid-altitude and high- altitude regions. Of particular significance is the widespread growth of common beans across various agro-ecologies, proving to be invaluable to farmers [37]. With a short maturation period of three months, these crops offer a means to escape drought and food starvation times. The potential of short-season grain legumes in addressing community chal- lenges associated with climate variability is substantial, contributing to the development of more robust and productive agricultural systems. Often serving as emergency sustenance for vulnerable HHs, legumes encounter various obstacles in their production [38]. In general, legumes are the most vital component of the farming systems in the region next to cereals (for example, common bean is the second and third most priority crop for the HHs) but no inputs are used for their cultivation. Collec- tively, their overall productivity is low, needing interventions for improving. The recent development of massive rhizobia inoculant applications against the grain legumes in central parts of Ethiopia has revealed significant improvement of their productivity (www.N2Africa.com). Seeing their potential in the region, escaping environmental risks, growing in different agro-ecologies and recent inoculant application developments that confirmed the improvement of the legume productivity,

PLOS One | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0327727 August 13, 2025 16 / 20 we suggest that smallholder farmers need sustainable intensification of the legumes for resilience to climate change and food security in Southern Ethiopia. Legumes as an alternative crop for the copping plan The legume sector in Ethiopia has the potential to be a key accelerator of agricultural development and growth. It can potentially contribute to a valuable role not only in boosting export incomes but also in enhancing the rural economy, improving food/nutrition diversity, enhancing soil fertility, and livestock productivity, reducing global warming and creating more sustainable and climate-resilient food systems due to its ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen through biological nitro- gen fixation [39]. Despite legume crops encompassing both edible and fodder crops, and a potential diverse crop portfolio in Ethiopia, the national statistical agency [7] highlights the area under cultivation and production only for the major 10 edible legume crops. So, the national area and total production coverage for major legume crops (faba bean, field pea, chickpea, lentil, grass pea, soya bean, fenugreek, mung bean and lupine) in 2021 were 12.9% and 9.4%, respectively. In terms of the proportion of the national area production, faba bean (4%), common bean (2.4%), chickpea (1.7%) and field peas (1.69%) are among the major legume crops [7]. To increase productivity per plot of land and overcome the

ever-increasing price of chemical fertilizer, biofertilizer technology has been gaining attention among agronomists and soil scientists because of its considerable benefits, especially in sustainable agriculture [40]. The country has identified a tremendous potential in biofertilizers to increase the productivity of soils [41]. Even though the country has started to expand the research on biofertilizers, to identify and isolate, more strains of beneficial microbes [40] and a few private companies started to produce and distribute to the farmers, it is limited to the central part of the country. In the study region, the agricultural experts and development agents (DAs) have information about biofertilizers, but the target farmers did not have information about it. This tells us a considerable number of farmers receive or do not at all receive agricultural innovations. Agricultural intensification has been characterized as ‘increasing average labor or capital inputs on a smallholding, either cultivated land alone or cultivated and grazing land, to enhance the value of output per hectare’ [38], one of such intensification is use of inoculants, which is absent in the current study area. Fertilizers, improved seeds, agrochemicals, and agricultural gear are among the measures used to intensify land use [39]. Ethiopia has a long history of agricultural intensification through the adoption of technologies that either save labor (the ox-plough), preserve natural resources (various land structures, such as terracing and the use of tree crops to pre-

serve soil integrity), or maximize value per hectare [40]. However, a very rapid population increase offers the demand for intensification, while market access gives the opportunity [41]. Fertilizers are one of the key productivity-enhancing inputs widely promoted by the extension system in Ethiopia to increase yields by addressing the productivity losses caused by declining soil fertility [38]. Fertilizer intensification has been considered a key game changer in Ethiopia’s agriculture transformation agenda, and as a result, fertilizer imports have more than doubled over the last two decades [42]. From June 2022 to January 2023, the Ethiopian Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) claimed that more than 15 million quintals of fertilizer were given for a single cropping season, accounting for around 83 percent of the total need. Fertilizer costs, fertilizer prices are still prohibitively expensive for most farmers with poor household incomes because worldwide fertilizer prices are high due to the indirect effects of conflicts, retail fertilizer prices have doubled to 1,400 USD/MT [43]. Farmers and development agents confirm it that when landholding declines, so does per capita legume production. The farmers replied that when they face a short- age of land, they prioritize their main stable cereals and tuber crops (S7 Fig). Continuous cereal-based mono-cropping practices, soil fertility depletion and erosion problems, limited improvement and farmers’ preferred legume varieties, lack of/limited access to quality seeds and no/or minimal uses of inputs in legume

PLOS One | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0327727 August 13, 2025 17 / 20 intensification; inappropriate market information and unclear legume market outlets, weak public and private partnerships across each legume commodity are also common bottlenecks. An alternate approach to the constraints is to apply bio-fertilizer to the soil; this promotes plant growth by rhizobacteria and nitrogen fixers [38]. Bio-fertilizer technique is low-cost and environmentally friendly. There are constraints limiting its application and implementation in the region; these constraints were technological, infrastructural, financial, environmen- tal, human resources, unawareness, and quality. Farm problems and food shortage months of the year Ethiopian soils are experiencing loss of organic matter, biodiversity, fertility by water and wind erosion, and soil acidifi- cation. Besides, continued traditional farming of crops mines nutrients from the farm fields without replacement, causing soil nutrient depletion. Many Ethiopian soils become now depleted or acidified and gives poor crop yields. Hence, food production is a persistent and critical issue in the country [42]. Rural poverty and food insecurity pose challenges for mil- lions of individuals across the country. Despite a historical drop, a significant minority of Ethiopian HHs (25%) remain food insecure and vulnerable (27.08%) [43]. In Ethiopia, the interplay between rising temperatures and erratic rainfall patterns—hallmarks of climate change—has

profound implications for food security, particularly given the nation’s heavy reliance on rain-fed agriculture. Over the past few decades, Ethiopia has seen a noticeable increase in mean annual temperatures. Temperature increases in Ethiopia have accelerated evapotranspiration, resulting in decreased crop yields, increased water stress, and deficiencies in soil moisture. Food security in households has suffered as a result of these climate changes’ negative effects on agricultural productivity (44). Rainfall patterns in Ethiopia significantly impact food security, as agriculture, which accounts for over 85% of the labor force, is primarily rain-fed. Changes in rainfall patterns, such as delayed initiation and early cessation, affect crop yields and livestock output, leading to increased food insecurity (45) (S1 Table). According to FAO [47], the situation has deteriorated as the country has experienced five consecutive failed rainy sea- sons, the worst desert locust infestation, and the outbreak of conflict in northern Ethiopia, causing many rural households to lose productive assets and their vital resources. Furthermore, drought has claimed the lives of 6.8 million animals in the country’s south. These effects have resulted in low crop output, revenue loss, and high rates of malnutrition and food insecurity [48]. Farmers in the study region described drought, diseases, pests, and weeds as the prominent farm factors that contributed to reducing farm productivity (S5 Fig). Climate change causes drought, incidence of pests and diseases

and reduces crop productivity [47] that severely affects the livelihoods of the farmers. Conclusions This research advances and provides extensive information on HH demographics, farm variability, agricultural productiv- ity, related problems, and the opportunities and challenges of legume production. Field visits and farmers’ interview result analysis identify the productivity of smallholder farmers. Accordingly, the level of farm intensification, household posses- sion of the tropical livestock unit, and the knowledge and accessibility of technologies affect farm productivities in the region. Other food security determinant factors in the area include cultivable land fragmentation at the household level, varied farm topography, and incidences of pests, diseases, and drought in the farms. Notable land fragmentation with frequent breakdowns of pests and diseases reduces sufficient food production. Besides, rain-fed farming systems, char- acterized by unusual & erratic rainfall and frequent drought, lead to hunger and loss of both crops and livestock. In such conditions, farm intensification was influenced by the shortage of farm water, the accessibility and prices of chemical fertil- izers, and the knowledge and availability of biofertilizers. Even though diverse legumes are growing in the area, a negli- gible (3%) number of HHs heard about the use of biofertilizers, and none of them use the biofertilizers. In conclusion, our findings reflect that creating awareness about the use of legumes and rhizobia inoculants can significantly improve crop

production by the smallholder farmers. Along with this, the provision of improved seed varieties that exhibit resistance to

PLOS One | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0327727 August 13, 2025 18 / 20 diseases, pests, and drought at affordable prices with implementation strategies is needed to enhance farmers’ response to climate shocks. Thus, the production of legumes ought to be integrated into agricultural extension initiatives by facilitat- ing training and supplying biofertilizers within their localities. Supporting information S1 Fig. Sampling sites of the study area. (TIF) S2 Fig. Household size effects the production. (TIF) S3 Fig. Land size fragmentation and tropical livestock unit at zone and district levels in the study area. (TIF) S4 Fig. Legume productivity as influenced by tropical livestock unit. (TIF) S5 Fig. Factors affecting farm productivity in the study region. (TIF) S6 Fig. Farm productivity as influenced by land cropped, arable land and tropical livestock unit . (TIF) S7 Fig. Legume and cereal productivities influenced by land cropped. (TIF) Table S1. Pearson correlation between demographic and farm factors. (TIF) Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank Arba Minch University, for providing facilities and equipment’s and ARIT-FID- France for financial support. Author contributions Conceptualization: Meseretu Melese Mekuria. Formal analysis: Bereket Getachew Mamo. Funding acquisition: Ashenafi Hailu Gunnabo. Investigation: Meseretu Melese Mekuria. Methodology: Meseretu Melese Mekuria. Resources: Ashenafi Hailu Gunnabo. Software: Ashenafi Hailu Gunnabo. Supervision: Endalkachew Woldemeskel, Ashenafi Hailu Gunnabo. Validation: Bereket Getachew Mamo.

Writing – original draft: Meseretu Melese Mekuria. Writing – review & editing: Endalkachew Woldemeskel, Ashenafi Hailu Gunnabo.

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