Legume integration in smallholder farming systems for food security and resilience to climate change

PLOS One | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0327727 August 13, 2025 8 / 20 effectively cultivate larger areas of arable land, which in turn influences their preference for growing major cereals such as maize, teff, wheat, and barley (S4 Fig). Agricultural intensification To feed the growing national and regional populations, agricultural intensification through organic/chemical fertilizers and improved agricultural practices have been recommended. Accordingly, besides chemical fertilizers, organic fertilizers such as animal manure, compost, green manure and biofertilizers have been in use for over decades. In the current study area, manure application was common among HHs living in highlands, whereas those living in lowlands possessed many live- stock but rarely used manure or compost to improve their farm fertility (Table 3). Table 3. Farm practices affecting mean farm produce per ha per year. Farm characters No. % Mean farm product (ton/ha/year) HHs that hired labor 219 25.86 2.43a HHs that not hired labor 628 74.14 1.84b HHs that used organic fertilizer 377 44.51 1.98b HHs that not used organic fertilizer 470 55.49 2.13 a HHs that used compost as organic fertilizer 193 22.79 1.94a HHs that not used compost as organic fertilizer 654 77.21 2.10 a HHs that used manure as organic fertilizer 240 28.34 2.05a HHs that not used manure as organic fertilizer 607 71.66 2.07a HHs that fertilized legumes 139 16.41 1.91 a HHs that not fertilized legumes 704 83.59 2.10 a HHs that used urea fertilizer 653 77.10 2.11 a

HHs that not used urea fertilizer 194 22.90 1.92 a HHs that used DAP fertilizer 218 25.75 2.58a HHs that not used DAP fertilizer 629 74.26 1.87b HHs that used NPSB fertilizer 343 40.41 1.81b HHs that not used NPSB fertilizer 504 59.50 2.24a HHs that believe their farms have poor soil fertility 55 6.49 1.69b HHs that believe their farms have moderate soil fertility 665 78.51 2.12a HHs that believe their farms have good soil fertility 127 14.99 1.93ab HHs that have hilly farms 119 14.05 2.17ab HHs that have plain farms 525 61.98 1.93b HHs that have valley farms 203 23.97 2.35a HHs that reported occurrence of pests on their farm 385 45.45 2.14a HHs that reported no occurrence of pests on their farm 462 54.55 2.00a HHs that reported occurrence of weeds on their farm 729 86.07 2.14a HHs that reported no occurrence of weeds on their farm 118 19.93 1.61b HHs that reported occurrence of disease on their farm 665 78.51 2.01b HHs that reported no occurrence of disease on their farm 182 21.49 2.27a HHs that have knowledge about rhizobium inoculants 25 3.00 2.14a HHs that have no knowledge about rhizobium inoculants 822 97.00 2.06a HHs that reported drought in the farm 652 73 2.07a HHs that not reported drought in the farm 195 27 2.06a HHs that used rhizobia inoculant 0 0.00 0.00 Treatments with the same letter were not significantly different. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0327727.t003