Legume integration in smallholder farming systems for food security and resilience to climate change

PLOS One | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0327727 August 13, 2025 7 / 20 At the zone level, small-scale farmers in Basketo, South Omo, and at lower altitudes of Gamo zones exhibited larger farmland (>2ha) holdings, while considerable number of farmers experienced farmland fragmentation (<2.0 ha) in Konso, Gamo, and Gofa highlands (Fig 1a, S2 Fig). Not surprisingly, at district level, all farmers cultivated <2ha farm sizes, except for North Ari district (Fig 1b). The allocation of land per household (6.8 persons/HH) was found to be insufficient for food production (S2 Fig). Subsequently, younger HH members started migrating to urban areas, while others were looking for non-agricultural practices. Tropical livestock unit (TLU) In the study area, mixed farming and pastoralist practices were common. Most respondents had a variety of livestock spe- cies that constituted local breeds and reared using low-input/low-output husbandry techniques. Residents in pastoral regions had the largest number of tropical livestock units (TLU) compared to HHs living in other lowlands that practiced crop-livestock mixed farming. The highest TLU was estimated for farmers residing in South Omo, where the pastoralists live in the region. Despite the effect of drought (climate impact) on the livestock population in the pastoral area, still a substantial number of TLU was recorded from the area (S2 Fig; Table 2). In the lowlands of Gamo, farmers focused on fruits mainly banana and

vegetable productions, and had a small livestock population when compared to pastoralist areas but had a large population when compared with the highland and midland dwellers. Nowadays, in Gamo low lands, the farmers are changing forests and grazing lands to banana plantations, which reduced the number of livestock being reared by the HHs (S3 Fig). Farmers who possess a significant number of TLU primarily utilizing oxen for ploughing tend to yield a greater number of cereals in comparison to legumes. This can be attributed to the fact that utilizing oxen for ploughing allows farmers to Fig 1. Farm sizes by zone (a) and by district (b). shows the average farm size per household in hectares by zone (a) and district (b). The figure illus- trates the spatial variation in farm size distribution by comparing mean landholding sizes across districts (subdivisions within zones) and zones (adminis- trative units below the regional level). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0327727.g001