Legume integration in smallholder farming systems for food security and resilience to climate change

PLOS One | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0327727 August 13, 2025 3 / 20 pertaining to soil fertility are imperative; chemical fertilizers have historically been advantageous over extended periods; however, their overutilization has resulted in deleterious environmental repercussions [17]. Besides the effect of N-fertilizer on the environment, smallholder farmers often do not afford the prices, have poor access to the fertilizers in their vicinity and consequently produce crops below their potential [18]. Thus, smallholder farmers choose to add legumes as an alternate source of N-fertilizer because of their N2-fixation capability when in symbiosis with soil bacteria called rhizobia [19]. Thus, farmers can fill in geographical and temporal gaps in cropping systems by using intercropping legumes with cereals and rotating their crops [20]. Notwithstanding all the above potential benefits, the area under legume cultivation is small in most farming systems in SSA (Sub-Saharan Africa) [15], with the most prominent legumes being grain legumes because grain legumes have the benefit of supplying immediate returns to smallholder farmers [14]. They can be integrated with all farming systems, as solo crops in rotation with cereals [21], as intercrops between root crops, banana (Musa paradisiaca) or Enset (Ensete ventricosum) [19] and still the yields vary seasonally and across locations [22]. Their inclusion in the farming system still embraces traditional practices with poor or no input supply.

Though it has been claimed that legume cultivation and agriculture have increased in sub-Saharan Africa due to expan- sion, it is not sufficient to feed the population. Adding to this, in remote parts of sub-Saharan Africa inputs and modern technologies are less likely accepted as the technologies slowly reach the areas and farmers have poor access to. So, the farmers are left behind. In Ethiopia, there exists significant potential for legume production; however, the actual output and productivity of legumes remain below this potential. This discrepancy can primarily be attributed to various environmental and climatic influences, inadequate utilization of agricultural inputs, restricted access to improved seed varieties, and sub- optimal extension services. Consequently, this research endeavor has been undertaken to analyze the determining factors of the production status of legumes among smallholder farmers at the household level. The findings were initiated to generate data for measuring the performance of HHs, farming and management practices, vulnerability to climate change, risk aversion strategies, and enhancing production systems. Furthermore, it evaluates pertinent issues regarding strate- gies that warrant governmental attention and intervention, as well as promising methodologies in the relevant contexts. Additionally, we sought to evaluate farmers’ willingness to adopt novel technologies such as biofertilizers to facilitate future intervention strategies. Methodology Description of the study area

The study was done at the South Ethiopian regional government which is situated between approximately 6° 51′ 10″ N, 37° 45′ 16″ E. The area encompasses four of the traditionally defined Ethiopian agro-ecologies such as Kolla, Woina-dega, Dega, and Wurch [12]. However, the region’s main distinguishing feature is a rich and humid midland, home to Ethiopia’s densest rural population. Most districts are densely populated, including the Rift Valley dry plains, such as the Gamo, Konso, and Derashe districts; in contrast, settlements in the South Omo area follow Omo basin and cover a wide geographical area, with sparsely distributed agro-pastoral patches of villages [23]. Agriculture accounts for about 92% of the population’s income and home consumption [21]. Except for Konso, and pastoral areas in Omo valley, the enset based farming system is dominant in the highlands of the region. Teff (Eragrostis teff), maize (Zea mays), barley (Hordeum vulgare), wheat (Triticum aestivum), faba bean (Vicia faba), field pea (Pisum sativum), and common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) were grown for both commercial and domestic purposes in lowland and midland altitudes of the region. In the study area, the principal cash crops include banana (Musa paradisiaca), coffee (Cof- fee arabica), mango (Mangifera indica), sesame (Sesamum indicum), cotton (Gossypium hirsutum), khat (Catha edulis) and apple (Malus domestica), tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), vegetables and spices. Khat has been expanding and

replacing coffee- and enset-based agroforestry systems in the highlands of most of the study area. Among the livestock,