Legume integration in smallholder farming systems for food security and resilience to climate change

PLOS One | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0327727 August 13, 2025 18 / 20 diseases, pests, and drought at affordable prices with implementation strategies is needed to enhance farmers’ response to climate shocks. Thus, the production of legumes ought to be integrated into agricultural extension initiatives by facilitat- ing training and supplying biofertilizers within their localities. Supporting information S1 Fig. Sampling sites of the study area. (TIF) S2 Fig. Household size effects the production. (TIF) S3 Fig. Land size fragmentation and tropical livestock unit at zone and district levels in the study area. (TIF) S4 Fig. Legume productivity as influenced by tropical livestock unit. (TIF) S5 Fig. Factors affecting farm productivity in the study region. (TIF) S6 Fig. Farm productivity as influenced by land cropped, arable land and tropical livestock unit . (TIF) S7 Fig. Legume and cereal productivities influenced by land cropped. (TIF) Table S1. Pearson correlation between demographic and farm factors. (TIF) Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank Arba Minch University, for providing facilities and equipment’s and ARIT-FID- France for financial support. Author contributions Conceptualization: Meseretu Melese Mekuria. Formal analysis: Bereket Getachew Mamo. Funding acquisition: Ashenafi Hailu Gunnabo. Investigation: Meseretu Melese Mekuria. Methodology: Meseretu Melese Mekuria. Resources: Ashenafi Hailu Gunnabo. Software: Ashenafi Hailu Gunnabo. Supervision: Endalkachew Woldemeskel, Ashenafi Hailu Gunnabo. Validation: Bereket Getachew Mamo.

Writing – original draft: Meseretu Melese Mekuria. Writing – review & editing: Endalkachew Woldemeskel, Ashenafi Hailu Gunnabo.