Legume integration in smallholder farming systems for food security and resilience to climate change

PLOS One | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0327727 August 13, 2025 17 / 20 intensification; inappropriate market information and unclear legume market outlets, weak public and private partnerships across each legume commodity are also common bottlenecks. An alternate approach to the constraints is to apply bio-fertilizer to the soil; this promotes plant growth by rhizobacteria and nitrogen fixers [38]. Bio-fertilizer technique is low-cost and environmentally friendly. There are constraints limiting its application and implementation in the region; these constraints were technological, infrastructural, financial, environmen- tal, human resources, unawareness, and quality. Farm problems and food shortage months of the year Ethiopian soils are experiencing loss of organic matter, biodiversity, fertility by water and wind erosion, and soil acidifi- cation. Besides, continued traditional farming of crops mines nutrients from the farm fields without replacement, causing soil nutrient depletion. Many Ethiopian soils become now depleted or acidified and gives poor crop yields. Hence, food production is a persistent and critical issue in the country [42]. Rural poverty and food insecurity pose challenges for mil- lions of individuals across the country. Despite a historical drop, a significant minority of Ethiopian HHs (25%) remain food insecure and vulnerable (27.08%) [43]. In Ethiopia, the interplay between rising temperatures and erratic rainfall patterns—hallmarks of climate change—has

profound implications for food security, particularly given the nation’s heavy reliance on rain-fed agriculture. Over the past few decades, Ethiopia has seen a noticeable increase in mean annual temperatures. Temperature increases in Ethiopia have accelerated evapotranspiration, resulting in decreased crop yields, increased water stress, and deficiencies in soil moisture. Food security in households has suffered as a result of these climate changes’ negative effects on agricultural productivity (44). Rainfall patterns in Ethiopia significantly impact food security, as agriculture, which accounts for over 85% of the labor force, is primarily rain-fed. Changes in rainfall patterns, such as delayed initiation and early cessation, affect crop yields and livestock output, leading to increased food insecurity (45) (S1 Table). According to FAO [47], the situation has deteriorated as the country has experienced five consecutive failed rainy sea- sons, the worst desert locust infestation, and the outbreak of conflict in northern Ethiopia, causing many rural households to lose productive assets and their vital resources. Furthermore, drought has claimed the lives of 6.8 million animals in the country’s south. These effects have resulted in low crop output, revenue loss, and high rates of malnutrition and food insecurity [48]. Farmers in the study region described drought, diseases, pests, and weeds as the prominent farm factors that contributed to reducing farm productivity (S5 Fig). Climate change causes drought, incidence of pests and diseases

and reduces crop productivity [47] that severely affects the livelihoods of the farmers. Conclusions This research advances and provides extensive information on HH demographics, farm variability, agricultural productiv- ity, related problems, and the opportunities and challenges of legume production. Field visits and farmers’ interview result analysis identify the productivity of smallholder farmers. Accordingly, the level of farm intensification, household posses- sion of the tropical livestock unit, and the knowledge and accessibility of technologies affect farm productivities in the region. Other food security determinant factors in the area include cultivable land fragmentation at the household level, varied farm topography, and incidences of pests, diseases, and drought in the farms. Notable land fragmentation with frequent breakdowns of pests and diseases reduces sufficient food production. Besides, rain-fed farming systems, char- acterized by unusual & erratic rainfall and frequent drought, lead to hunger and loss of both crops and livestock. In such conditions, farm intensification was influenced by the shortage of farm water, the accessibility and prices of chemical fertil- izers, and the knowledge and availability of biofertilizers. Even though diverse legumes are growing in the area, a negli- gible (3%) number of HHs heard about the use of biofertilizers, and none of them use the biofertilizers. In conclusion, our findings reflect that creating awareness about the use of legumes and rhizobia inoculants can significantly improve crop

production by the smallholder farmers. Along with this, the provision of improved seed varieties that exhibit resistance to