Legume integration in smallholder farming systems for food security and resilience to climate change

PLOS One | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0327727 August 13, 2025 14 / 20 for allowable periods. This caused land degradation, and even fertilizer application was insufficient to improve conditions, and the farmers experienced poor return after fertilizer applications. This coincides with the current findings that fertiliza- tion application rates did not bring significant variations farm productivity. Consequently, families of farmers migrate to towns or look for cottage industries. Farmers in the lowland areas of Gofa, Basketo, and South Omo attempt to increase their cereal crop yield by expand- ing their farmlands into uncultivated forests, protected areas, and even beyond the boundaries of their villages. Similar to this, the farmers in Gamo, Konso, Gofa, and Derashe shared uncultivable land with other farmers, even for a single cropping season, in order to utilize all of the fertile ground nearby. This led to a minor increase in cereal production. Farmers in these regions complain that they don’t have enough money for emergencies or to buy inputs (S6 Fig). Farmers with small agricultural holdings frequently migrate to neighboring towns for labor jobs as an escape tactic because of their high vulnerability to food and financial instability [45]. Weaving is another choice for the farmers, youths and many HHs in Gamo highlands, an indication of shifting towards cottage industries. In most areas of the highlands, use of animal dung was adapted as a widespread practice of keeping the soil healthy, but as livestock populations declined, smallholder farm-

ers were obliged to use chemical fertilizers. The Enset-Coffee-Khat based farming systems in the highlands had better organic fertilizer application practices than other farmers. Agricultural practices and intensification A considerable proportion of the populace areas in rural regions experience the detrimental effects of malnutrition and persistent food insecurity [33]. Food insecurity was more prevalent in pastoralist areas and dry rift valley lowlands districts than in highlands. This was true for chronic food insufficient areas when prolonged drought occurs. During the period of this survey, the lowlands of Gofa (Demba Gofa and Zala), Gamo (Garda Marta of Kamba district) and Konso (Kolme and Karat Zuria districts) were experiencing severe food shortage due to prolonged droughts that had consequences on their agricultural intensification. In light of the previously mentioned issue, Ethiopia has made notable advancements in enhancing agricultural output over the recent decades. Nevertheless, despite these positive developments, the levels of yield and overall intensification have continued to be low. In the region, the intensification system has given prominent attention to the distribution and adaptation of chemical fertilizers in ensuring food security but the promotion of improved seeds, which are considered the core of improvement, has less effort from the extension service providers [34]. We observed the extent to which farmers utilized farming technologies and practices commonly recommended by extension services and government authorities.

Regarding chemical fertilizer applications, previously the government had an annual plan to provide fertilizers on a credit base system to the farmers and it was the mandate of agricultural sectors and political leaders because it was con- sidered integral to the sustainable improvement of agriculture [10]. Now, the farmers adopted the chemical fertilizers, and they claim that their farms did not give enough yields without the use of chemical fertilizers. However, the rising costs and in inaccessibility of the chemical fertilizers in their vicinity was severely affecting their farm productivity. A significant number of smallholder farmers have gained access to improved varieties and technologies through the national agricultural extension system and different technology scaling projects (20). However, it was also observed during the survey and discussion that the farmers were facing seed problems, pests, and disease for which they need improved and resistance varieties. As the current result shows that farmers were growing diverse crops on the farms, which is a result of intensification, reflecting distribution of improved varieties to the area. Crop diversification is thus one of the farm intensification methods that farmers adopted it in most parts of Ethiopia [35]. The same authors also reported that farmers were adopting the use of improved agricultural practices like increasing on-farm tree planting, soil and water conservation, adjusting planting dates, and crop diversification.