Legume integration in smallholder farming systems for food security and resilience to climate change

PLOS One | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0327727 August 13, 2025 11 / 20 Farm problems A number of factors affecting farm productivity have been reported. As such, farmers experienced climate change induc- ing irregular rainfalls, droughts, incidence of pests and diseases, etc. Majority of the HHs (73%) reported the occurrence of drought on their farm. The drought, exceptionally limited crop production in lowlands of Gamo, South Omo, Konso, and Gofa that faced greater risks of climate fluctuations (droughts and short rainfalls) spilling over several months (Fig 5.tiff). Besides drought, farmland topology induced variations in farm productivity due to runoff. Consequently, farms on sloppy and valley areas had low productivity. Farmers were expanding farms into hilly terrains primarily driven by the limited availability of land, making the problem more intense. Other important factors on the farm include pests and diseases. The abundance of pests varied across zones and destrict, probably linked to agro-climatic conditions of the areas. Nearly 50% of HHs reported pests on farms, while 78% claimed that diseases on their farms (Table 3). The farmers believed that improved seeds would tolerate diseases and pests, and they were requesting for the seeds as well as inputs that they can access at their vicinities (S5 Fig). Food shortage months of the year To explain the food self-sufficiency of the farmers throughout the region, the months of the year that the farmers experi-

ence drought and food shortage was assessed. The region experiences two distinct cropping seasons, namely, Meher and Belg, allowing the farmers to produce twice a year. Meher allows the farmers to grow crops from June to September and harvest in October while Belg allows crop to grow from March to May [29]. Accordingly, farmers experienced food shortage over several months from January to July, though the magnitude var- ied from month to month. From February to June, majority of the farmers (>50%) experienced severe drought and had no Fig 3. Crop priority selection at the household level in the research region. As a reflection of regional preferences for crop production, the figure shows the first, second, and third priority crops chosen by households. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0327727.g003