Overtopping risk of high-hazard embankment dam under climate change condition

Fig 9. Probable maximum precipitation estimation of Batu Dam. Historical (1975–2019), Lower probable maximum precipitation compared to future scenarios. Early Century (2020–2046) RCP4.5 Early Century with a significant rise in 5-day precipitation. RCP6.0 Early Century Higher emissions result in larger increases in precipitation across all durations, RCP8.5 Early Century: The most severe emissions scenario shows a substantial rise in probable maximum precipitation, especially for 5-day events. Mid Century (2047–2073). RCP4.5 Mid Century: steady increases in rainfall. RCP6.0 Mid Century: Higher emissions continue to drive escalating rainfall intensities, particularly for 3- and 5-day events. RCP8.5 Mid Century: significant increases in probable maximum precipitation, with more frequent extreme rainfall events. Late Century (2074–2099),RCP4.5 Late Century: substantial increases in long-duration rainfall, especially 3- and 5-day events. RCP6.0 Late Century: increasing, with extreme 5-day events becoming more intense. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0311181.g009 Fig 10. IDF curves for Batu catchment for historical data. The graph shows rainfall intensity (mm/hr) on the y-axis and duration (hours) on the x-axis, using a logarithmic scale for both axes. It displays rainfall intensity curves for different Average Recurrence Intervals (ARI), ranging from 1 year to 100,000 years. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0311181.g010 PLOS ONE Climate change PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0311181 February 27, 2025 16 / 32