Effective implementation of the Sport Education Model in physical education: A meta-analysis of participant and intervention characteristics

PLOS One | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0331228 October 16, 2025 8 / 17 Table 1. GRADE analyses. Outcomes Certainty assessment Number of participants and studies Certainty of evidence (GRADE) Risk of bias Inconsistency Indirectness Imprecision Risk of publication bias PE learning effect (cognitive dimension) Seriousa Seriousb Not serious Not serious Seriouse 681 (5 studies) ⊕◯◯◯ Very low PE learning effect (non-cognitive dimension) Seriousa Seriousb Not serious Not serious Seriouse 2209 (11 studies) ⊕◯◯◯ Very low Note: High Certainty: Very confident the true effect is close to the estimate. Moderate Certainty: Moderately confident the true effect is likely close but could differ substantially. Low Certainty: Limited confidence; the true effect may be very different. Very Low Certainty: Very little confidence; the true effect is likely very different. GRADE Downgrading Reasons: a) Downgraded by 1 level due to high or some risk of bias. b) Downgraded by 1 level due to substantial heterogeneity (I2 ≥ 50%). c) Downgraded by 1 level for <400 participants or unclear effect direction. d) Downgraded by 2 levels for impreci- sion based on the above points. e) Downgraded by 1 level due to significant Egger’ s test (p < 0.05). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0331228.t001 Table 2. Study characteristics. Study Participant characteristics Intervention characteristics Learning efficiency Number of students (EG/CG) Learning Stage Experience with SEM Class size Intervention programme (EG/CG) Intervention frequency Duration of the session Experimental period

Browne et al. (2004) [39] 27/26 Secondary No Small SEM/TT 2 lessons/ week 30–60 min/ session ≥18 session A Méndez-Giménez et al. (2015) [7] 185/110 Secondary UTD Large SEM/TT UTD 30–60 min/ session <18 session B Wahl-Alexander & Cho- mentowski (2018) [40] 23/24 University No Small SEM/TT ≤1 lessons/ week ≥60 min/ session <18 session A Burgueño et al. (2018) [41] 22/22 Secondary No Small SEM/TT 2 lessons/ week 30–60 min/ session <18 session B Luna et al. (2019) [21] 69/44 Secondary UTD Large SEM/TT >2 lessons/ week 30–60 min/ session <18 session B Luna et al. (2020) [35] 85/57 Elementary UTD Large SEM/TT >2 lessons/ week 30–60 min/ session ≥18 session B Segovia & Gutiérrez et al. (2020) [8] 59/44 Elementary No Large SEM/TT >2 lessons/ week 30–60 min/ session <18 session A Burgueño & Medina- Casaubón (2020) [36] 74/74 Secondary No Small SEM/TT 2 lessons/ week ≥60 min/ session <18 session B Choi et al. (2021) [20] 188/184 University UTD Medium SEM/TT ≤1 lesson/ week ≥60 min/ session <18 session A & B Fernandez-Rio & Casey (2021) [42] 48/42 Secondary Yes Medium SEM/TT 2 lessons/ week 30–60 min/ session <18 session B Bessa et al. (2021) [43] 204/226 Secondary UTD Small SEM/TT >2 lessons/ week ≥60 min/ session <18 session B Franco et al. (2021) [44] 25/25 Secondary UTD Small SEM/TT ≤1 lesson/ week 30–60 min/ session <18 session B Liao et al. (2023) [45] 49/46 University UTD Medium SEM/TT ≤1 lesson/ week ≥60 min/ session <18 session B

Liu et al. (2023) [37] 56/50 University No Small SEM/TT 2 lessons/ week ≥60 min/ session ≥18 session A Sukiri et al. (2024) [38] 204/226 Secondary UTD Medium SEM/TT 2 lessons/ week ≥60 min/ session <18 session B https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0331228.t002