Effective implementation of the Sport Education Model in physical education: A meta-analysis of participant and intervention characteristics

PLOS One | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0331228 October 16, 2025 3 / 17 To address these gaps, this study conducts a meta-analysis to systematically synthesize existing data and examine the effects of SEM on student PE learning with a specific focus on two key moderating variables: Participant Characteristics (such as age, prior experience, and class size) and Intervention Characteristics (including frequency, duration, and period of interventions). By quantitatively analyzing these factors, this research aims to provide evidence-based insights into the optimal conditions for SEM implementation. Specifically, this study seeks to: 1. Determine how different participant characteristics influence the effectiveness of SEM in promoting cognitive and non-cognitive learning outcomes. 2. Determine how different intervention characteristics influence the effectiveness of SEM in promoting cognitive and non-cognitive learning outcomes. 3. Provide actionable recommendations for educators and policymakers on designing SEM-based interventions. The findings of this study are expected to have significant implications for the field of physical education by offering a more granular understanding of SEM’s effectiveness across different educational contexts. By bridging the current research gaps, this study not only aims to enhance the theoretical framework of SEM but also to inform policy and prac- tice, enabling the design of more targeted and effective SEM interventions. In doing so, it contributes to the broader goal

of high-quality development of school-based physical education, ensuring that SEM can play a transformative role in promoting lifelong physical activity and holistic development among students. Methods This review follows the updated PRISMA guidelines [22] (See S1 Appendix. PRISMA checklist) and is registered on INPLASY (registration number INPLASY202530011). More information can be found at the following link: https://inplasy.com/. Search strategy We conducted a comprehensive literature search across five electronic databases: Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed, and EBSCOhost (CINAHL with Full Text and SPORTDiscus with Full Text), with the search completed on February 6th, 2025. Customized search strings were designed for each database, using the following terms: (“Sport Education Model” OR “Sport Education” OR “Sport season”) AND (“student*” OR “physical education” or “PE”) AND (“performance” OR “out- come” OR “achievement” OR “effect*” OR “influence” OR “experiment” OR “academic achievement” OR “exercise capac- ity” OR “physical fitness” OR “physical quality” OR “knowledge” OR “skills” OR “motivation” OR “interest” OR “attitude” OR “mental health”). Additionally, a thorough manual search of Google Scholar and the reference lists of all included articles was conducted to ensure no relevant publications were overlooked. Detailed search strings for each database are pro- vided in supplementary material S2 Appendix. Selection criteria The inclusion criteria were established based on the PICOS (Population, Intervention, Comparison, Outcomes, and Study

Design) framework [23], as follows: (a) there were no restrictions on the gender, age, or inclusion of vulnerable groups with physical disabilities, and there were no requirements regarding prior participation in SEM learning by the students; (b) the study must include a description of the interventions for both the experimental group (SEM) and the control group, with the interventions implemented in an educational setting and lasting more than two weeks. In addition, experimental interventions in which SEM is combined with other teaching models are allowed to be included, such as SEM integrated with Teaching Games for Understanding; (c) the intervention frequency, duration, and intensity for the control group must be similar to those of the experimental group; (d) the study must include at least one outcome measured using a valid, objective tool; (e) the research design must be a randomized controlled trial or a quasi-experimental study.