Effective implementation of the Sport Education Model in physical education: A meta-analysis of participant and intervention characteristics

PLOS One | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0331228 October 16, 2025 2 / 17 experience in small class sizes. This study offers practical recommendations for SEM implementation and theoretical support for the high-quality development of school sports. Introduction The Sport Education Model (SEM) is a distinctive and well-structured pedagogical framework designed to provide students with authentic and developmentally appro- priate experiences in physical education [1–3]. By focusing on enhancing students’ abilities, confidence, and desire to engage in physical activity, SEM lays a robust foundation for lifelong active participation [1,4–6]. Unlike traditional physical educa- tion models that often emphasize skill acquisition in isolation, SEM adopts a student- centered approach, where learners take on a variety of roles—such as players, coaches, officials, scorekeepers, and equipment managers—within stable, homoge- neous groups [7–10]. This multi-role involvement not only cultivates a comprehensive understanding of the sport, including rules, strategies, and tactics, but also fosters leadership, responsibility, and teamwork skills [5,11–13]. Guided initially by the teacher, SEM employs a progressive release of responsibil- ity model [3,14]. The transition from teacher-directed instruction to more autonomous student-led practice empowers students to take charge of their learning [15]. This approach is realized through a series of engaging and challenging tasks that draw on students’ strengths and interests, thereby promoting positive social dynamics,

collaboration, and sustained motivation [7,16,17]. The model’s structure includes five key stages: teacher-directed instruction, team selection, modified preseason activities, formal competition, and cumulative events. Each stage is designed to sequentially build both the cognitive and affective domains of learning [3]. Addition- ally, SEM’s motivational environment is instrumental in supporting key components of physical literacy—including intrinsic motivation, self-efficacy, and enjoyment—thereby enabling students to acquire the confidence, competence, and movement-based literacy essential for lifelong physical activity engagement [18–20]. Despite substantial evidence supporting SEM’s positive effects on students’ physical abilities, mental health, and social skills, significant knowledge gaps remain concerning the moderating variables that influence its effectiveness [1,4,21]. Most existing reviews tend to generalize SEM’s benefits without delving into how differ- ent factors might modify these outcomes [1,3,6,13]. For instance, it is still unclear whether students’ responses to SEM vary significantly across different age groups (elementary, secondary, and university levels), or how factors such as students’ prior experience with SEM and class size might influence their engagement and moti- vation. Moreover, the potential impacts of intervention frequency, session duration, and overall intervention period on learning outcomes are rarely quantified in current literature. Understanding these moderating effects is crucial, as they can substantially

influence the effectiveness of SEM in promoting both cognitive and non-cognitive outcomes [3,6]. and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. Data availability statement: All relevant data are within the paper and its Supporting Information files. Funding: This study was supported by A Project Supported by the Education Ministry’s Youth Fund Project for Humanities and Social Sciences Research of China (Grant No. 24YJC890001). Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.