Effective implementation of the Sport Education Model in physical education: A meta-analysis of participant and intervention characteristics

PLOS One | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0331228 October 16, 2025 14 / 17 Load Theory [58]: Extending the session duration allows students to process complex tactics and rules gradually, pre- venting overload [36]. The lower effects observed in the 30–60 minute sessions may be attributed to: (1) insufficient time for role task execution: Shorter sessions limit the depth of role-playing and teamwork, hindering students from fully experiencing the contextual nature of the physical education curriculum [42]; (2) inadequate feedback mechanisms: The brevity of the sessions makes it difficult for teachers to provide timely, targeted feedback, leading to less effective skill consolidation [8]. In terms of intervention period, SEM produces a significant moderate positive effect with intervention periods of no more than 18 sessions (Effect size = 0.654, P < 0.001), whereas no statistically significant effect is observed for periods of ≥18 sessions (P = 0.180). Although these results are inconsistent with recommended intervention periods from previ- ous studies [3,5], the present study argues that a period of no more than 18 sessions is a reasonable duration for SEM implementation, which may be closely related to students’ motivation sustainability and the complexity of the teaching content [35,37,39]. The reasons for the optimal effects at ≤18 sessions may include: (1) novelty of short-term interven- tions and enhanced motivation: Shorter periods help maintain students’ interest in role-playing and competition, avoiding

fatigue and burnout associated with prolonged intervention periods [38,44]; (2) clear task objectives and timely feedback: Shorter interventions enable students to receive feedback more quickly, clarify goals and tasks, thereby enhancing intrin- sic motivation [20]; (3) avoidance of the burnout effect: Longer intervention periods may lead to students losing interest in their roles and tasks, which undermines learning outcomes [28]. The lack of significance for periods ≥18 sessions may be attributed to: (1) insufficient motivation sustainability: Extended periods may result in repetitive role-playing and teamwork experiences, leading to motivation decline [21,37,39]; (2) excessive cognitive load, which affects learning outcomes: The complexity of tactics and role tasks in long-term interventions may overwhelm students’ cognitive load, thus negatively impacting learning outcomes [59]. Limitations Several limitations in this study warrant attention. First, due to the limited number of studies on each moderator variable, subgroup analyses of cognitive and non-cognitive indicators within each moderator variable were not conducted. Further- more, the small number of studies included in the meta-analysis (n = 6) that assessed the impact of SEM on non-cognitive indicators may lead to potential discrepancies between the meta-analysis results and the actual outcomes. Second, no studies have examined potential confounding factors that may influence students’ physical education learning, such as

personality, emotions, sleep behaviors, and dietary habits. Third, according to the GRADE assessment, the certainty of the reported cognitive and non-cognitive outcomes is very low, which undermines the credibility of these estimates. Despite these limitations, our study provides novel and valuable practical insights for frontline physical education teachers and researchers, revealing the positive impact of SEM on enhancing students’ physical education learning. Practical applications The results of this study reveal significant differences in the effects of SEM on students’ physical education learning out- comes under various teaching conditions, providing several practical implications. First, with regard to participant char- acteristics, it is recommended that frontline physical education teachers implement SEM interventions with small class sizes for secondary students who lack prior SEM experience, as this approach demonstrates the best outcomes. Regard- ing intervention characteristics, it is suggested that frontline physical education teachers design SEM course plans that involve two lessons per week, with each session lasting no less than 60 minutes and a total of no more than 18 lessons. Conclusion In conclusion, SEM can effectively promote students’ physical education learning and positively impact their cognitive and non-cognitive abilities. Specifically, the most effective SEM intervention plan involves two lessons per week, each lasting