Effective implementation of the Sport Education Model in physical education: A meta-analysis of participant and intervention characteristics

PLOS One | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0331228 October 16, 2025 11 / 17 Effects of the Sport Education Model on student PE learning with different duration of each session. This section of the study categorized the duration of each session in the included studies into ≤30 min, 30–60 min/session, and ≥60 min/session. Since no studies used interventions with ≤30 min, the comparison focused on the 30–60 min/session and ≥60 min/session interventions. The data in Table 5 show that SEM interventions with a duration of 30–60 min/session had a significant small positive effect on students’ physical education learning (Effect size = 0.295; P = 0.011). However, SEM interventions with a duration of ≥60 min/session demonstrated a significant large positive effect (Effect size = 1.002; P < 0.001). These results suggest that SEM interventions with a duration of ≥60 min/session have the greatest positive impact on students’ physical education learning. Effects of the Sport Education Model on student PE learning with different experimental periods. This section of the study categorized the experimental period in the included studies into <18 sessions and ≥18 sessions. The data in Table 5 show that the SEM experimental period of ≥18 sessions did not reach statistical significance for students’ physical education learning (P = 0.180), and therefore, it cannot be demonstrated to have a significant impact. However, the SEM experimental period of <18 sessions showed a significant moderate positive effect on students’ physical education

learning (Effect size = 0.654; P < 0.001). These results suggest that an experimental period of SEM beyond 18 sessions may not be suitable for enhancing students’ physical education learning. Discussion Statistical analysis indicates that the Sport Education Model (SEM) can promote students’ physical education learning, with positive effects observed in both cognitive and non-cognitive dimensions. Furthermore, the impact of SEM on stu- dents’ learning outcomes varies across different moderating variables. The results of this study show that SEM has a significant moderate positive impact on students’ physical education learning (Effect size = 0.590, P < 0.001). This finding suggests that SEM, as a structured teaching model, effectively enhances students’ cognitive and non-cognitive learning outcomes in physical education courses. This aligns with previous research, such as Manninen & Campbell’s (2022) [17] study, which demonstrated SEM’s significant role in improving students’ basic needs, intrinsic motivation, and prosocial attitudes. Additionally, Bessa et al. (2021) [1] highlighted SEM’s positive impact on students’ personal and social skills, as well as their motor and cognitive devel- opment. The reasons for these effects may include the following aspects: (1) The structural characteristics of SEM and their role in producing positive outcomes [5]. SEM simulates real-life sports event environments and emphasizes teamwork, role-playing, and long-term participation, which are crucial factors contributing to its positive effects [46,47].

Specifically, SEM’s structural features typically include season, affiliation, formal competition, culminating event, record keeping, and festivity [1–3,48]. These features not only help develop students’ sports skills but also enhance their autonomy and sense of belonging, thus fostering intrinsic motivation [6,20,41]. Additionally, SEM’s systematic and coherent approach provides students with ample opportunities for practice, allowing them to consolidate and refine their skills and knowledge across various contexts [2]. (2) The impact of SEM on cognitive and non-cognitive indicators [49,50]. SEM significantly enhances both cognitive and non-cognitive indicators, particularly in improving students’ cooperation skills, confidence, and attitudes toward physical education [1,3,43]. This impact may stem from SEM’s focus on student-centered autonomy support and social interaction [3]. According to Self-Determination Theory (SDT), students who experience greater autonomy, competence, and relatedness in physical activities tend to exhibit stronger intrinsic motivation and positive emotional experiences [51,52]. Furthermore, SEM emphasizes the cultivation of responsibility and teamwork through competition and role-playing, which is closely linked to the improvement of non-cognitive indicators [9]. Additionally, the impact of SEM on students’ physical education learning outcomes varies across different moderating variables. The heterogeneity test results (I2 = 98%) suggest a high level of variation among the included studies. This high

heterogeneity may be attributed to several factors: (1) Differences in participant characteristics, typically including factors