Using biodiversity features to promote an Ecosystem-Based Conservation framework in terrestrial ecosystems

PLOS One | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0336705 November 21, 2025 2 / 18 Targets, biodiversity loss continues, with wildlife populations declining by an average of over 50% [3]. In December 2022, the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity (COP15) adopted the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiver- sity Framework, which includes four global goals for 2050 and 23 targets aiming to achieve by 2030 [4–6]. This Framework calls for urgent action, including conserv- ing areas vital for both biodiversity conservation and ecosystem services provision. Although PAs have been regarded as cornerstones for biodiversity conservation, mounting evidence shows that they are not immune to species loss, particularly in terms of vertebrate species [7]. Whilst evidence from around the world indicates that protected area (PA) networks are expanding, they often exclude ecologically important landscapes, limiting their ability to maintain intact natural ecosystems and/ or achieve biodiversity conservation targets [8,9]. Regional frameworks, such as the Kigali Call to Action (2022), also emphasise the need to incorporate unprotected areas into conservation planning. These developments signal a shift towards more inclusive, ecosystem-level conservation approaches that could offer a better solution to improve the effectiveness of PAs in halting ongoing biodiversity loss [10–12]. A more inclusive conservation framework is, therefore, needed because current con- servation strategies are unlikely to meet these global biodiversity commitments [13],

underscoring the need for conservation approaches that extend beyond PAs, to effec- tively safeguard biodiversity right across dynamic social-ecological systems [14]. In Africa, conservation has evolved as a result of the intersection of ecological, cul- tural, institutional and economic factors [15,16]. Precolonial societies used customary laws to manage resources [17]. The colonial era imposed ‘preservationist’ model often disregarding indigenous knowledge [18,19]. Post-independence, maintained expansion of national parks often impacted local communities but by late 1990s, community-based natural resource management had emerged [20]. More recently CBD-inspired frameworks have promoted holistic approaches integrating social- ecological values and climate change adaptation measures [21–23]. Biodiversity conservation is recognised for both its intrinsic values, and the vital ecosystem services it offers to humanity [24,25]. Yet, challenges remain in imple- menting and sustaining effective conservation efforts, largely due to challenges in moving conservation beyond mere ‘protection’ into long-term rehabilitation and enhancement of ecosystems that can function and bring benefits beyond the limita- tions posed by PA boundaries. Biodiversity exists beyond formal boundaries and, as defined by CBD (1992), recognising and conserving ecosystem functions across spa- tial levels from species to landscapes, is critical for sustainability. In addition to these spatial challenges, existing conservation frameworks are often faced with incomplete

data in terms of estimates of biodiversity features including species distributions at the ecosystem level. These challenges have received little academic attention to date, and it is imperative to address them by adopting the ecosystem level as the defined unit of analysis. What is needed is a holistic approach that acknowledges the interconnectedness of ecosystems and addresses biodiversity threats that exist within and beyond PA boundaries. Project. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.