Men deny more than they believe about climate change on Twitter (X)

chambers [19]. This is further advanced by other scholars who have explored polarization in digital media environments such as climate change debates on Twitter [20–26]. Skeptics may question the significance of current temperature increases or attribute them to cyclic patterns unrelated to human activity. Cherry-picked data or misinterpretation of cli- mate models is common tactics to cast doubt [27]. Such denial obstructs efforts to address cli- mate change, despite overwhelming scientific consensus on its reality and human causation [28]. Recognizing and countering denialism is crucial for implementing effective climate poli- cies and mitigating its far-reaching impacts. Despite methodological and skeptical challenges, social media platforms remain critical spaces for engaging diverse audiences in discussions about climate change and mobilizing col- lective action towards mitigation and adaptation efforts [14]. A majority of the data used in these analyses comes from the microblogging service such as Twitter [29]. Several aspects of climate change through human opinions have been studied over the past years by researchers. The early studies of climate change on Twitter by [30,31] considered whether important events affect the discussion, and identified three groups of human stance towards climate change, namely supportive, unsupportive and neutral. [32] reported correlation between human sentiment and both hot and cold temperatures, underlin- ing the importance of temperature as an important variable in climate change sentiments.

Skeptics may question the significance of current temperature increases or attribute them to cyclic patterns unrelated to human activity. Cherry-picked data or misinterpretation of climate models is common tactics to cast doubt [27]. Such denial obstructs efforts to address climate change, despite overwhelming scientific consensus on its reality and human causation [28]. Recognizing and countering denialism is crucial for implementing effective climate policies and mitigating its far-reaching impacts. Resource overconsumption and human intervention profoundly influence the climate change debate, often exacerbating contradictions between deniers and believers [33]. Overcon- sumption, particularly of fossil fuels, accelerates greenhouse gas emissions, fueling climate change. Deniers, often backed by vested interests, may downplay these impacts to protect eco- nomic interests [34]. In contrast, believers emphasize the urgent need for sustainable resource management and emissions reductions to mitigate climate change’s adverse effects. However, societal dependence on resource-intensive lifestyles and industries complicates efforts to enact meaningful change, perpetuating the contradiction between recognizing climate change’s real- ity and addressing its root causes. The differences in opinions of climate change believer and denier groups exist across many variables including gender. Gender is reported to play a role in attitude towards climate change. While both genders use very similar language, female

tweeters had a convinced attitude and male tweeters presented a skeptical stance [35] towards impact of climate change. Finally, another aspect of concern for many researchers is the topics discussed in climate change related tweets [36]. Twitter serves as a crucial platform for political discussions on climate change, and the data derived from it is frequently utilized in the analysis of non-state climate action and public opinion on social media. Therefore, there exists significant potential to enhance our understanding of how actors within the climate governance complex engage on Twitter, interact with the general public, and are influenced by these interactions. A deeper comprehension of climate debates on Twit- ter can contribute to climate governance research and advance theories on the impact of social media, including norm diffusion, opinion leadership, and the formation of citizen and elite opinions, on climate governance. PLOS ONE Men deny climate change on Twitter PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0303007 February 13, 2025 3 / 9