Men deny more than they believe about climate change on Twitter (X)

audiences. Scientists share their research, policymakers discuss policy implications, and activ- ists mobilize support for environmental causes. The platform amplifies voices that advocate for sustainable practices, renewable energy, and conservation. By connecting people across borders, Twitter fosters a sense of collective responsibility [9]. As a result, Twitter is an impor- tant part of the context in which many actors in the global climate change regime develop political views, contest climate norms, but also spread misinformation and disinformation. The growing interest among scholars in various countries is focused on how the general public utilizes social media to participate in discussions related to climate change and potential solu- tions. Twitter data can also play a crucial role in analyzing how opinions on climate change and climate policy are formed among both citizens and elites. By studying how political com- munication or endorsements from individuals can impact public opinions on these issues, researchers can gain valuable insights. Future studies on public opinion could further explore these analyses using Twitter data, investigating whether specific framings of climate risks, such as climate-induced displacement, can influence public opinion through social media content. These research also shed light on the potential advantages and disadvantages of different framings of climate change, as they can impact climate governance through their influence on the general public. While many studies have progressively used sentiment analysis through

texts and visualization of tweets about climate change worldwide, causality and probability of individual attributes (e.g. gender) causing such tweets are further areas to explore about cli- mate change tweets. This work delivers a key contribution especially by introducing application of a causal ana- lytical model to all the research effort that has been made in the field of climate change and Twitter. Past works have studied the sentiment of the tweets and the most recent work explored seven dimensions of climate change via Twitter texts namely, stance, sentiment, aggressiveness, temperature, gender, topics and disasters, and their interactions. This work has focused on magnitude of difference between stance (denier, believer and neutral) climate change stances while exploring the causal linkage between gender and stance along with the other key components. Literature review Big Data analytics techniques have been widely used to evaluate environmental management and sustainability problems in order to uncover hidden trends and patterns in public opinions. Climate change denial often hinges on disputing temperature data, with some arguing that Earth’s climate has historically fluctuated naturally [10]. Climate change is a pressing global issue with significant implications for society, and social media platforms have become instrumental in facilitating discussions around it [11]. Scholars have recognized the role of social media in shaping public perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors

towards climate change [12]. Platforms like Twitter, Facebook, and Instagram serve as spaces where individuals share information, express opinions, and engage in dialogue about climate- related topics [13,14]. Studies have highlighted the potential of social media to amplify climate change discourse and foster public engagement [15–17]. For instance, research by [18] found that Twitter dis- cussions on climate change often include a diverse range of voices, from scientists to activists to policymakers. Furthermore, social media enables rapid dissemination of climate-related news and information, allowing users to stay informed and connected to developments in real-time [14]. However, scholars have also identified challenges associated with climate change discourse on social media, including the spread of misinformation, polarization of opinions, and echo PLOS ONE Men deny climate change on Twitter PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0303007 February 13, 2025 2 / 9