Factors influencing farming households’ climate change adaptation strategies in Central Vietnam

PLOS One | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0328058 July 10, 2025 9 / 22 head was employed as a proxy for farming experience. It was found that younger household heads generally possessed less familiarity with the socio-ecological context and agricultural practices than their older counterparts. Age categories were established based on standard psychomotor developmental criteria, classifying respondents into three groups: young, adult, and elderly. The results showed that the majority of respondents fell into the adult category, with an aver- age age of 45.24 years. This demographic profile is advantageous for the study, as middle-aged individuals are likely to have accumulated substantial experiential knowledge about local climate variability, its impacts, and relevant adaptation practices. Education was found to play a significant role in enhancing adaptive capacity. Educated respondents demonstrated a higher propensity to adopt adaptation measures, likely due to improved access to information, technology, and diversified income sources. Survey results revealed that 14.89% of respondents were illiterate, while 85.11% were literate. This illiter- acy rate is relatively high compared to national averages, consistent with patterns observed in other rural areas of Quang Binh province. The high proportion of illiterate farmers may hinder their capacity to respond effectively to climate change due to limitations in accessing adaptation-related knowledge and technologies. Farm size, defined as the total area of

agricultural land owned by a household, was measured in hectares. The data indicated that land ownership ranged from 0.1 to more than 3 hectares, with an average of 1.65 hectares per household. Livestock ownership was used as a proxy for household wealth, given that livestock remains a critical indicator of economic status in rural areas. The average livestock holding across sampled households was equivalent to 1,363 kilograms in terms of stockholding weight. Monthly household income was also assessed as a key economic indicator. The mean monthly income of surveyed households was 16,890,560 VND (approximately 700 USD). These figures reflect the relatively low-income status of the sampled population and underscore the economic vulnerability of farming households to climate-related shocks. Institutional factors Table 2. Socio-economic description of the sample. Variables Categories Frequency (N = 356) Percentage Means Gender Female 172 40.22 – Male 184 59.78 Age Young 99 27.81 45.24 Adulthood 231 64.89 Old 26 7.30 Household size (person) 1–4 153 42.98 5.23 5–8 149 41.85 9–12 54 15.17 Education level Illiterate 53 14.89 – Primary 109 30.62 Secondary 116 32.58 High school 48 13.48 College and above 30 8.43 Landholding (hectare) Less than 3 251 70.51 1.65 More than 3 105 29.49 Livestock holding (kg) 0-1,000 331 92.98 1,363 More than 1,000 25 7.02 Monthly income Below 10 million VND 179 50.28 16,890,560 11−30 million VND 156 43.82 More than 30 million VND 21 5.90 Source: Study results (2024).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0328058.t002