Factors influencing farming households’ climate change adaptation strategies in Central Vietnam

PLOS One | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0328058 July 10, 2025 19 / 22 different farmer profiles (e.g., land-poor households, female-headed households, experienced vs. novice farmers). These packages should be scalable, replicable, and tailored to ecological and socio-economic conditions across Vietnam’s coastal regions. 6. Study limitations Despite offering valuable insights into household-level adaptation to climate change in Central Vietnam, this study has several limitations. First, the cross-sectional design restricts the ability to infer causal relationships, as adaptation behav- iors are inherently dynamic and may evolve over time. Second, the reliance on self-reported data introduces the possibility of recall bias and subjective interpretation, particularly in responses related to climate events and adaptation decisions. Third, the use of the Multinomial Logit (MNL) model assumes the independence of irrelevant alternatives (IIA), which may not fully reflect the real-world complexity where adaptation strategies can be interrelated or sequential. Fourth, the study focused on four prominent adaptation strategies, potentially overlooking traditional, incremental, or less visible coping practices adopted by households. Fifth, while socio-economic, institutional, and environmental variables were considered, the study did not incorporate psychological, cultural, or normative factors such as risk perception, social trust, or commu- nity beliefs, which are known to influence behavioral choices. Sixth, the geographic focus on three communes in Tuyen

Hoa district limits the generalizability of the findings to other regions in Vietnam with different socio-ecological profiles. Finally, due to data constraints, the analysis could not include important variables such as market accessibility, land tenure security, migration dynamics, and remittance flows, which may significantly shape adaptation capacity and decisions. These limitations underscore the need for future research using longitudinal, mixed-method approaches and broader geo- graphic coverage to provide a more comprehensive understanding of climate adaptation among rural households. Supporting information S1 Data. (XLSX) Author contributions Conceptualization: Bui Huy Nhuong, Dinh Duc Truong, Le Huy Huan. Data curation: Duong Duc Tam. Formal analysis: Bui Thi Hoang Lan. Methodology: Dinh Duc Truong, Le Huy Huan, Bui Thi Hoang Lan, Duong Duc Tam. Project administration: Bui Huy Nhuong, Le Huy Huan, Nguyen Dieu Hang. Resources: Bui Thi Hoang Lan. Supervision: Le Huy Huan. Validation: Le Huy Huan, Bui Thi Hoang Lan, Nguyen Dieu Hang. Writing – original draft: Dinh Duc Truong. Writing – review & editing: Dinh Duc Truong, Nguyen Dieu Hang, Duong Duc Tam. References 1. Der Tambile E, Ramachandran VS, Rajendrakumar S. Rural livelihoods sustainability in South Asia and Africa: a systematic review with bibliometric analysis. Environ Sustain Indic. 2024;5:410–20. 2. Kone S, Balde A, Zahonogo P, et al. A systematic review of recent estimations of climate change impact on agriculture and adaptation strategies

perspectives in Africa. Mitig Adapt Strateg Glob Change. 2024;29:18.