Factors influencing farming households’ climate change adaptation strategies in Central Vietnam

PLOS One | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0328058 July 10, 2025 18 / 22 the Department of Agricultural Extension in partnership with local universities, research institutes, and farmer cooperatives. Training should be delivered at the commune level, with special attention to low-income and female-headed households. 5.3 Expand access to credit through multi-tiered rural financial systems Access to credit was found to be a modest but significant enabler of adaptation, particularly for capital-intensive strategies. A multi-tiered approach to rural credit should be adopted by scaling up the role of the Vietnam Bank for Social Policies (VBSP), while also fostering microfinance institutions (MFIs) and agricultural credit cooperatives. Priority lending schemes should focus on households in salinity-affected regions, offering low-interest loans tied to climate-resilient agricultural investments. These credit packages should be gender-sensitive, with simplified application procedures and technical sup- port integrated into loan programs. 5.4 Introduce targeted subsidies for salt-tolerant rice varieties The widespread but income-sensitive adoption of salt-tolerant rice varieties underscores the need for targeted input subsi- dies. We recommend implementing a voucher-based subsidy scheme to reduce the financial burden of acquiring certified salt-tolerant seeds and associated training. The program should prioritize small and medium-scale farmers and be admin-

istered through provincial agricultural departments in coordination with commune-level authorities. Furthermore, continued public investment in research and development (R&D) of improved salt-tolerant cultivars should be linked to extension services to ensure effective dissemination and uptake. 5.5 Strengthen climate information systems and local advisory services Access to timely and reliable information on climate variability, salinity levels, and adaptation techniques was found to sig- nificantly influence strategy adoption. Government agencies, in collaboration with local authorities, should invest in climate information systems that provide localized forecasts, seasonal advisories, and early warning alerts. These services should be integrated into agricultural extension channels and delivered in user-friendly formats, including SMS, radio, and village loudspeaker systems. 5.6 Support community-based adaptation and civic participation Membership in local civic organizations positively influenced adaptation uptake across all strategies. Policy should encourage the development of farmer-based organizations, cooperatives, and climate adaptation clubs that facilitate peer learning, shared investment, and collective action. Programs supporting women’s participation in such groups—especially through linkages with microcredit, training, and extension networks—should be prioritized as part of a broader effort to build social capital and institutional resilience. 5.7 Integrate land-use planning with adaptation strategies

Environmental factors such as land area, soil salinity, and land location were found to significantly shape adaptation behavior. Therefore, local land-use planning should incorporate climate vulnerability mapping and support land realloca- tion or conversion to more climate-compatible agricultural uses. For instance, land zoned for shrimp farming or integrated aquaculture systems should be prioritized in high-salinity zones, while rice cultivation with salt-tolerant varieties should be promoted in areas with moderate salinization. 5.8 Develop modular adaptation support packages Finally, adaptation interventions should not follow a one-size-fits-all model. Instead, modular adaptation support pack- ages—combining training, financial access, improved seed technologies, and climate information—should be designed for