Factors influencing farming households’ climate change adaptation strategies in Central Vietnam

PLOS One | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0328058 July 10, 2025 17 / 22 support. Training enhances not only farmers’ awareness but also their practical skills to implement context-appropriate practices. Similar conclusions were reached by Ngigi et al. (2017) and Asrat and Simane (2018), who emphasized the capacity-building role of agricultural extension systems and the need to institutionalize adaptive learning within rural devel- opment frameworks [24,25]. In synthesis, these findings affirm that adaptation decisions are not isolated technical choices but are deeply embed- ded in a broader socio-economic and institutional context. They support the literature on the socio-ecological embedded- ness of adaptation behavior, highlighting that successful climate resilience planning must consider differential access to resources, power relations, gender roles, and ecological constraints. For policy, this implies a move away from “one-size- fits-all” prescriptions toward more differentiated, inclusive, and place-based adaptation strategies. Such approaches must simultaneously enhance resource access, build institutional capacity, and promote knowledge co-production between communities and decision-makers. 5. Conclusions and recommendations This study has empirically examined the determinants of climate change adaptation strategies among farming households in Quang Binh province, Central Vietnam—a region acutely affected by saltwater intrusion, droughts, and other climate-

induced stressors. By employing a MNL model based on a household survey of 356 respondents, the study identified a wide range of socio-economic, demographic, institutional, and environmental factors influencing households’ adaptation choices. The findings confirm that climate adaptation behavior is highly context-specific and shaped by a complex inter- play between resources, knowledge, and perceived environmental risks. Notably, the results reveal that gender, education, household size, income, age, and farming experience significantly influence the likelihood of selecting specific adaptation strategies. Moreover, environmental characteristics such as the proportion and location of salinized land, institutional variables including access to climate information, credit, training, and civic networks, further explain the heterogeneity in adaptation decisions across households. The study contributes to the growing body of literature emphasizing that adaptation to climate change is not merely a matter of access to technology or exposure to risk, but a deeply social process involving power dynamics, access to insti- tutions, and socio-ecological knowledge. These insights are particularly relevant for transitional economies like Vietnam, where rural households are increasingly required to respond autonomously to climate threats amidst resource constraints and institutional limitations. Based on the empirical findings and in response to the urgent need for locally tailored climate resilience strategies, this

study offers a set of targeted recommendations to enhance the adaptive capacity of smallholder farmers in salinity-prone and climate-vulnerable regions of Vietnam. These recommendations are structured to reflect both the multidimensional drivers of adaptation behavior and the institutional mechanisms required for effective policy implementation. 5.1 Promote gender-inclusive adaptation policies Given the significant influence of gender on adaptation behavior, policies must be designed to empower women and female-headed households. This includes improving women’s access to agricultural extension services, credit programs, and training opportunities. Strengthening the role of women’s unions and grassroots civic organizations will be critical for enabling inclusive participation in climate adaptation initiatives and enhancing household-level decision-making. 5.2 Design tailored training programs on climate-resilient agricultural practices The study finds that participation in training programs significantly increases the likelihood of adopting technically demand- ing adaptation strategies, such as salt-tolerant rice cultivation and lotus-fish integrated farming. Therefore, training should move beyond awareness-raising to focus on hands-on, context-specific modules addressing soil salinity management, water use efficiency, crop diversification, and integrated aquaculture systems. These programs should be coordinated by